Syntactic Typology: Studies in the Phenomenology of Language

Winfred P. Lehmann

Appendix B: Index

• A (subject of transitive verb in nonergative languages), 330-334
• Absolute, 329
• Absolute constructions, 34-35
• Additive numeral pattern, 19
• Adelung, Johann C., 7, 27, 30
  • characterization of Turkish of, 9, 26-30
• Adjectives, descriptive, 17
• Adpositions, 12, 16, 78
• Adverbial clause, 14
• Adverbs, 117-121, 192-193
• Afterthoughts, 62
• Agent, 331
• Agentivity, 356
• Agglutinative structure, 219
• Agreement, 13-14, 395-396
• Akkadian, 418
• Ambiguity in verb-initial and verb-final languages, 321-324
• Ambivalent languages, 34-35
• Anaphora, 165-166, 204-205
• Animacy hierarchy, 385-387
• Antiergative, 380-383
• Antipassive, 361-364
• Apparently similar patterns in languages, 421-423
• Approaches to language, 426-432
• Areas, linguistic, 413-417
• Arrangement, 10, 43
  • fundamental, 49, 412
• Article, 297-298
  • postposed, 414
  • preposed, 298-299
• Aspect, 105-106, 187-191
• Attitude, speaker's, 106-108
• Auxiliaries
  • as characteristics of SVO languages, 172, 180, 188, 205
  • modal, 185-186
• Avar, 338
• Axioms governing language patterns, 32

• Balkan language area, 413-414
• Basic English, 188
• Basque, 333, 336, 357, 358, 370
• Batak, 272-275, 318
  • passive, use of, in, 317
  • reflexive in, 314-315
• Batsbi, 366-367
• Baure, 284-285, 292
• Benveniste, Emile, 415
• Beowulf, OV patterns in, 37-38
• Blixen, Olaf, 141
• Bloomfield, Leonard, 30
• Boas, Franz, 416
• Borrowing, 34
• Brain, control of language by, 9

• Calbert, Joseph, 420
• Carroll, Lewis, 169
• Case grammar, 43-44
• Case-marking systems for S, A, and P, 332
• Causative, 12-13, 44, 110-115, 159-160, 299-300, 419
  • in Indo-European, 47, 189
• Change
  • of language type, 34, 219, 404-409
  • of syllable structure, 218-219
  • of word order, 42
• Change, Language
  • in accordance with principles, 431
  • leading to inconsistency, 397-399
• Charmey, 398
• Chinese, Mandarin, 223-266
  • ba-construction, 231, 266
  • causative relationship, 242, 246-247
  • clause structure, 226-229
  • complementation, 248
  • compounding mechanisms, 233-235
  • correlative structures, 259-262, 264
  • definiteness, signals for, 227-228, 237
  • extent clause, 257-258
  • grammatical morphology, lack of, 235-237, 265
  • morphology, 233-252
  • paired correlative markers, 259-262
  • passivelike sentences, 53
  • place phrases, 229
  • pronominalization, 262-264
  • relative clause, 249, 253-256
  • serial verbs, 237-241, 245-246, 249-251
  • subordination, 252
  • time adverbial clause, 256-257
  • time phrases, 229
  • tone and syllabic structure, 224-225
  • topic-prominence, 226, 236-237
  • word order, 52, 225-233
  • zero-pronominalization, 263-264
  • zhe-construction, 252-253, 258
• Chol, 352-353, 377
• Chomsky, Noam, 31, 428-429
• Chukchee, 364-365, 404
• Circassian, West, Bzhedukh, 359-360, 362
• Clefting, 27, 137, 203, 210-212, 320-321
• Cognitive dissonance, 309-310, 313, 316-317
• Cohesiveness of patterning in language, 405-406
• Comparative, 38, 430
  • OV, in Old English, 407-408
• Comparison, 18-19, 38, 81
• Complement, 14, 21, 162-163, 197
• Complementation, 18, 197-198, 248, 431
• Complementizer, 147
• Compounding patterns, 100-102, 216, 233-235
• Compound sentences, 18, 193-198
• Concord, 13. See also Agreement
• Conjunction reduction, 319-321
• Consistent languages, 34, 54
• Control, 12. See also Government
• Coordination, 121-123, 160-161, 195
• Copula, 66-68, 301-302

• Dalabon, 386-387
• Dānesfāni, 341-342
• Dargi, 365-366
• Dative, shift of, 42
• Declarative, 44-46
• Deep structure, universal, 44-45, 50-51
• Deletion, anaphoric, 165, 205
• Delimitation, 13. See also Agreement
• Derbyshire, D. C., 58, 324
• Derivational morphology: ergativity and, 390-391
• Determinant, in Polynesian, 143
• Determiner, 45
• Devices of language, 9-15
• Diffusion, 34
• Dillon, Myles, 418
• Discourse structure, 397, 432
  • in Dyirbal, 363-364
• Dixon, Robert M. W., 426-427
• Double subject sentences, 74-78
• Dravidian, 36, 415
• Drift, 54, 398, 408
  • in Indo-European, 409
• Dyirbal, 333, 346-349, 354-356, 358, 360, 387-388, 393
  • antipassive in, 363, 364
  • coordination in, 348-349

• Easter Island (a VSO language), 139-168
  • adjectives, 152
  • anaphora, 166-167
  • article, 147-149
  • causatives, 159-160
  • clauses, simple, 143-145
  • comparatives, 147
  • coordination, 160-161
  • determinant, 143-144, 168
  • equational clauses, 146-147, 165
  • genitive phrases, 150-152
  • interrogatives, 155-157
  • negation, 157-159
  • nominal phrases, 147-149
  • numerals, 152-153
  • passivization, 167-168
  • predicate, 143
  • prepositional phrases, 146
  • reciprocals and reflexives, 159
  • relative clause, 149-150
  • subordination, 162-166
  • verbal phrases, 153-160
    • pattern of, 154
• Ellipsis, 194
• Englert, Father Sebastian, 140, 142, 144
• English (an SVO language), 169-222
  • adjectives, order of, 177-178
  • adverbial clauses, 176, 196-197
  • adverbials, sentence, 192-193
  • anaphora, 204-205
  • aspect and tense, 187-191
  • auxiliaries, 172, 179, 185-186, 187-188, 191
  • causative, 47, 189
  • clauses, simple, 170-175
  • clefting, 203, 210-212
  • complementation, 197-198, 408-409
  • compound and complex sentences, 193
  • constructions with a standard, 174
  • coordination, 193-195, 346-347, 349
  • derivation, 216, 390
  • DO, as dummy verb, 180
  • ellipsis, 194
  • ergativity, 337, 389-391
  • extraposition, 209
  • genitives, 177
  • change of, 37-38
  • government, 174-175
  • hypotaxis, 195
  • inflection, 213-216
  • interrogation, 179-181
  • intonation patterns, 179-180
  • marking, 173-174, 198-200
  • middle, expression of, 183-185
  • modality, expressions for, 185-186
  • morphological characteristics, 212-216
  • morphophonemic processes, 217-218
  • negation, 172, 181-183
  • nominal phrases, 175-178
  • passivization, 206-208
  • phonological characteristics, 218-221
  • pseudo-clefting, 211-212
  • reflexivization, 184
  • relative clauses, 175-176, 203-204
  • segmentals, 220-221
  • subjects in, 173, 343
  • subordination, 195-197
  • substitutes in, 172-173, 200-205
  • suprasegmentals, 219-220
  • tense, 190-191
  • there, 205, 209, 211
  • topicalization, 208-210
  • verbal phrases, 178-191
  • wh-words, 180-181
  • yes-or-no questions, 180-181
• English, change from OV to VO in, 37-39
• English, Old
  • causative in, 47, 189
  • OV patterns in, 37-38
• Equational clauses, 146-147
• Ergative, 329
• Ergative-absolute system, 333
• Ergativity, 329-394
  • agentivity and, 355-367
  • animacy hierarchy and, 385-388
  • antiergative and, 380-383
  • case-marking and, 330-334, 379-388
  • derivational morphology and, 389-391
  • diachronic relationships of, with nominative-accusative systems, 368-379
  • discrepancy in system of, 340-341, 354
  • lexical, 391-392
  • loss of, 371
  • morphological, 334, 336-342
  • motivation for, 335-336
  • nominalization and, 374-379
  • passive and, 350, 368-374
  • semantic, 334-335, 356
  • split, 350-355
  • according to tense-aspect, 351
  • subject and, 343
  • subjectless sentences and, 381-382
  • syntactic, 334-335, 336-337, 343, 389-391, 393
  • verb agreement and, 338-342
• Explanations based on a typological framework, 40-41

• Fijian, 275-278
  • reflexive, 312-313
  • relative construction, ambiguity in, 321-322
• Finck, Franz N., 423
• Finnish, 382-383
• Focused constituent, 293-294
• Foregrounding, 207-210
• Framework, typological, 24-26, 416-417
  • use of, for explanation, 40-41
• French, 40
• Fries, Charles, 37-38, 41

• Gallehus inscription, 218, 402-403
• Gapping, 194
• Generative grammar, 50
• Genitives, change in English, 37, 408
• Georgian, 351-352, 357
• German
  • adverb order, 420
  • copula, 424
  • an inconsistent language, 409-413
  • negation postverbal, 411
  • passive, 421
  • postpositions, 410
  • predicate adjective, 424-425
  • preposed relative construction, 410-411
  • word order, 21, 52
• Germanic
  • complementation, 408-409
  • consonant shift, 218
  • origin of perfect, 415-416
  • umlaut, 401-402
• Gilbertese, 279, 323
• Goetze, Albrecht, 418
• Gothic, 47, 405
• Government, 12-13, 18-19, 32, 174, 395-396
• Greek, 7, 33, 407, 414
  • complementation, 409
• Greenberg, Joseph, 42, 214, 225, 288
  • universals of, 58, 78, 80, 81, 82, 93, 102, 269

• Hattic, 35
• Heavy objects, 316-317
• Hebrew, 213, 416
• Hindi, 371
• Historical linguistics, 37-42
  • predictive power of, 428
• Hittite, 35, 406, 418
• Hixkaryana, 58, 324
• Hua, 384-385
• Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 423
• Hypotaxis. See Subordination

• Inconsistency in languages, 32-33, 340-341, 354, 395-399, 400-404
• Indo-Iranian: ergativity in, 371, 377
• Inflection, loss of, 213-216, 219
• Influence of languages on others, 413-417
• Ingram, David, 416
• Ineseño Chumash, 282-284
• Interpretation based on :
  • language-dependent knowledge, 241-244
  • language-independent principles, 244-247
  • pragmatic factors, 244
  • universal linguistic principles, 248-252
• Interrogative, 17-18, 44, 46, 93-94, 419
  • postverbal marker for, in OV, 93, 430
• Intonation, 11-21, 46
  • as declarative marker, 46, 179
  • as interrogative marker, 46, 47, 179
• Iranian, 376-377
• Irish
  • Modern: selected patterns, 15-18
  • Old, 399, 418
• Iterative, 44

• Jacaltec, 377-378
• Japanese (an OV language), 7, 57-138
  • adjectives, 66
  • adpositions, 78-81
  • adverb, 117-121
  • afterthoughts, 62, 119
  • agentivity, 366
  • agreement, 68-70
  • aspect, 105-106
  • causative, 110-115
  • clefting, 137
  • comparison of inequality, 81, 430
  • compound and complex sentences, 121-127
  • compound verbs, 100-102, 106-108
  • copula, 66-68
  • foregrounding, 134-137
  • genitives, 90-91
  • honorifics, 202-203
  • interrogative, 93-94
  • modality, 102-103
  • negative, 94
  • nominal modifiers, 82-92
  • numerals and quantifiers, 91-92
  • passive, 96, 98, 108-110, 421-422
  • pronouns, lack of, 127-130, 202-203
  • quotatives, 124-126
  • reciprocal, 95
  • reflexivization, 32-33, 76, 95-100, 183
  • reflexive clauses, 86-90
  • scrambling, 133-134
  • simple sentence type, 64
  • SOV, 59-60
  • speaker's attitude, representation of, 106-108
  • subjectless sentences, 70-72
  • tense, 103-104 theme, 134-137
  • verb deletion, 130-133
  • verbal phrases, 93-117;
    • order of elements in, 115-117
    • with themes, sentences, 72-74
• Jespersen, Otto, 30-31

• K (abstract nominal categories), 44
• k (inflections or function words), 45
• Kala Lagau Langgus, 362-363
• Khinalug, 344-345, 355

• Language
  • processes and devices of, 9-14, 49
• Lateralization, 9
• Latin, 7-8, 33, 34, 41, 45, 331
• Linguistics, an empirical science, 427

• Malagasy, 270-272
  • conjugation reduction, 319-320
  • heavy objects, 316
  • higher verbs, 318
  • reciprocal, 311
  • reflexive, 312-313, 315
  • subjects alone relativized, 323
• Malayo-Polynesian, verb-initial, 287
• Marking, 22, 173-174, 198-200
  • determination of, 268-269
• Meillet, Antoine, 415
• Middle, 44, 173-185, 432
  • in Proto-Indo-European, 407
  • verbs in Modern English, 183-184
• Mithridates, 26-27
• Modality, 420
• Modification, syntactic, 32, 43
• Modification = sandhi, 11, 49
  • in VO vs. OV languages, 11
• Modulation. See Intonation
• Mohenjodaro, 35
• Momentary, 44, 48, 187
• Morphological patterns, conservative, 213
• Morphophonemic processes, 217-218
• Motu, 333-334, 388
• Müller, Friedrich, 26, 30
• Munjani, 371

• Necessitative, 44, 102, 186
• Negation, 18, 44, 46, 181-183, 419
  • OV, postverbal marker for, 94, 430
  • SVO, preceding verbs, 172, 191
  • VSO, preceding verbs, 157-159
• Nez Perce, 403-404
• Nominalization, 374-379
• Noonan, Michael, 417

• O. See Object
• Object, 44
• Order. See Arrangement
• OSV languages, 269-270, 324
• Otomi, 281-282
• OV languages, 6, 16-18
  • marking for case in, 214
  • progressive assimilation in, 217
  • suffixation in, 212
  • See also Japanese OVS, 58

• P (direct object of verb in nonergative languages), 331-334
• P (proposition), 44
• Pali, 405
• Parataxis. See Coordination
• Particles, sentence-introducing, 417-419
• Passive, 22, 53, 108-110, 167-168, 173, 206-208, 300, 350, 370-374, 375, 421-422
  • adversity, 108-110, 421
  • frequent with perfect, 373
• Patient, 331
• Patterns, selected, of language structure, 15-26
• Perfective, 44
• Persian, 371-372
  • Old, 376-377
• Person markers, 416-417
• Phonological component, 6
• Phonological processes, 23
• Pinyin, 225
• Polynesian, 372-373
• Portmanteau morph, 341
• Predictive power in linguistics, 428-430
• Prefixation, 23
  • absence of, in OV languages, 408
  • in Proto-Indo-European, 408
• Principles governing language, 19, 46, 395-400, 430
• Processes of language, 9-14, 25-26
• Pronouns, lack of, in Japanese 127-130
• Proposition, 44
• Proto-Indo-European
  • causative in, 47
  • middle in, 183
  • structure of, 406-407
• Pseudo-clefting, 211-212
• Putonghua, 413. See also Chinese

• Q. See Qualifier
• Q categories, 44-45, 183, 419-420
• Qualifier, 19-20, 44-45, 47
  • verbal, 172, 212, 419-420
• Quechua (OV order), 48
  • syllable structure, 219
• Quiché, 339, 358-359, 360-361, 365
• Quotatives, 124-126

• Reciprocal, 95, 310-311
• Reflexive pronouns in Indo-European, 407
• Reflexivization as a syntactic category, 32-33, 95-100, 312-313, 315, 431-432
• Relative constructions, 13, 17, 20, 86-90, 296-297
  • Chinese, 253-256
  • Easter Island, 149-150
  • English, 175-176, 203-204
  • Indo-European, 406-407
  • Japanese, 86-90
  • Malagasy, 323
• Relativity, linguistic, 423-426
• Relevance principle, 304-306
• Rembarnga, 341
• Retention, rate of, 41
• Rheme, 175
• Ross's principle: right dislocation, 61
• Russian, 375-376

• S (single segment with intransitive verb), 330-334
• S (subject). See Subject
• SAE (Standard Average European), 415
• Samoan, 373-374
• Sandfeld, Kristian, 413-414
• Sanskrit, 7, 39, 42, 47, 371, 405, 415
• Sapir, Edward, 54, 398, 416, 423-426, 432
• Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 423-426
• Saussure, Ferdinand de, 54, 432
• Selection, 10
• Semantic structures and language types, 5, 221
• Sentence, 44-45
• Serial verbs, 237-241, 245-246, 249-251
• Seuren, Pieter, 44
• Σ, 44. See also Sentence
• Sinhalese
  • change from VO to OV, 39
  • selected patterns, 15-18
  • teen numerals, 39, 404-405
• SOV languages. See Japanese
• Standard, constructions with, 16-17, 174
• Subject, 52-53, 330
• Subject, double, 73-78
• Subject, properties of, 343
• Subject-final languages, 267-327
  • general properties of, 285-302
  • negative precedes verb in, 299
  • passive in, 300
  • possessors, phrase, after head, in, 295-296
  • prepositional, 291-292
  • problems with, for understanding sentence, 324
  • pronoun-retaining strategies of, 322
  • properties and patterns of
    • adverbs, 302
    • ambiguity, 321-323
    • articles, 297-299
    • case-marking, nominal, not prominent, 289-291
    • causative element precedes root of verb, 299-300
    • copula lacking, 300-301
    • found in verb-initial phyla, 286-288
  • question word, preverbal, in, 292-294
  • reciprocals in, 310-311
  • reflexives in, 312-315
  • relative clause follows head in, 296
  • relative pronoun lacking in, 296-297
  • subordinate conjunctions in, 294-295
  • verb agreement in, 288-289
  • verb-initial, 285-286. See also VOS languages
• Subject-predicate languages: cognitively advantageous, 306-307
• Subject prominence, 53
• Subordination, 14
  • in OV languages, 122-124
  • in SVO languages, 195
  • in VSO languages, 162-166
• Substitutes, in SVO languages, 172-173, 202-205
• Suffixation, 23
• Sumerian, 35, 419
• Suprasegmentals, 219-220
• Surface expression, relation of, to underlying categories, 48
• SVO languages, 5-6, 52. See also English
• Swahili, 338
• Syllabic structure, 23
• Syllabification and language types, 218-219
• Syntactic component: central in language, 5-6

• Tag questions, 181
• Tamil, 405
• Tasmanian, 35
• Taxonomy vs. typology, 5
• Tense, 187-191
• Theme, 72-74, 134-137, 173, 175, 303-304, 396-397
  • in Japanese relativization, 90
• There, 205, 209, 211
• Tone-languages, 224-225
• Tongan, 329, 358, 365
• Topicalization, 208-210, 305
  • by passive, 421
• Topicalizer, 407
• Topic-prominence, 52-53, 226-227, 236-237
  • and Lack of It-Clefting, 137
• Transformational grammar, 51, 428-429
• Turkish
  • as characterized by Adelung, 27-30
  • ki-relative, 33, 401-402
  • negatives in, 182
  • participles in, 193
• Twaddell, W. F., 185-186
• Typological framework, use of, 40, 416-417
• Typology
  • bases of, 2, 3-4
  • concerns of, 4-5
  • implications of
    • for description, 30-37
    • for history, 37-42
    • for theory, 31
  • and patterns and processes, 24-26
  • and selected patterns, 15-24
  • and two basic language types, VO, OV, 6-8
• Tzeltal, 279-281, 311

• Umlaut, 23, 217
  • expectation for, 403
  • in Germanic, 402-403
• Universals and typological study, 42-49

• Verb: central in language, 7-8
• Verbal modifiers, 17-18
• Verbal qualifiers, 172
• Voicing of American English -t-, 397
• VO languages, 6. See also Easter Island; VOS languages
• Voluntative, 44, 186
• VOS languages, 269-325
  • scarcity of, explanations for, 302-324
  • cognitive dissonance, principle of, 309-310
  • relevance principle, 304-306
  • semantic interpretation, a principle of, 306-309
• Vowel harmony, 23, 217, 403-404
• Vowel systems, 221
• VSO languages, 15-18, 143-168. See also Easter Island
  • case-marking in, 214
  • prefixation in, 212
  • regressive assimilation in, 217

• Wackernagel, Jacob, 33
• Walbiri, 340, 359, 362
• Wh-questions, 63, 180-181
• Whitney, William D., 426
• Whorf, Benjamin L., 415, 423-426
• Word order, difficulty of establishing basic pattern of, 58-59, 226-227

• Yes-or-no questions, 180
• Yidiny, 350

• Zenéyze, 325-327
• Zibun, Japanese, 32