Old English Online
Lesson 3
Jonathan Slocum
In an Anglo-Saxon Chronicle entry for the year 755, King Cynewulf of Wessex battles with Prince Cyneheard. Cynewulf had deprived Cyneheard's brother Sebright of most of his kingdom "for unrighteous deeds," and apparently Cyneheard took exception! Hearing that Cynewulf has gone, thinly protected, on a trip to the small town of Merton to visit a certain lady, Cyneheard marshals his forces and rides out, surrounding Merton without the King's attendants becoming aware of this. Cynewulf, once he grasps his predicament, will rush out alone to confront his enemies. As events unfold, this story highlights an aspect of Anglo-Saxon culture wherein loyalty to one's lord is paramount, taking precedence even over loyalty to one's kin: the chronicler implies that both sides -- members of whom who are related to one another -- make the right decision.
The theme of Germanic comitatus loyalty recurs often in Old English literature; such loyalty transcends fear of death. In The Lord of the Rings, J.R.R. Tolkien models his fictional kingdom of Rohan on Anglo-Saxon culture. Of particular relevance is the reaction by the Rohirrim to King Théoden's decision to attack the army of Mordor despite there being little or no hope of success: "But they were a stern people, loyal to their lord... Doom hung over them, but they faced it silently" (from The Muster of Rohan in The Return of the King). We shall encounter this theme again, in lesson 6.
Reading and Textual Analysis
We witness in our Chronicle story the strong tendency in Anglo-Saxon storytelling to make frequent use of a handful of connectives, like 'and', 'then', 'when', even 'and then', where we would leave these understood or at least vary the wording. We see, as well, common use of pronouns that often leaves us in confusion, seeking a referent; the original audience for these stories was presumably better able to cope, or perhaps may have benefitted from a storyteller's accompanying pantomime.
Our selection includes lines 14-44, found on pp. 2-3 in: Charles T. Onions, ed. (1959), Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader in Prose and Verse, 14th edition, Oxford: Clarendon.
Ond þā ongeat se cyning þæt, ond hē on þā duru ēode, ond þā unhēanlīce hine werede oþ hē on þone æþeling lōcude, ond þā ūt rǣsde on hine ond hine miclum gewundode;
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- when
- ongeat -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite of <ongietan, ongeat, ongēaton, ongieten> grasp, understand -- grasped
- se -- definite article; nominative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyning -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <cyning> king -- king
- þæt -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <sē, sēo, ðæt> that -- this
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- hē -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- he
- on -- preposition; <on> on(to), upon -- to
- þā -- definite article; accusative singular feminine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- duru -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <duru> door -- door # or "out of doors"
- ēode -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <gān> go, walk, move -- went
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- ...
- unhēanlīce -- adverb; <unhēanlīce> not disgracefully, not ignobly -- nobly
- hine -- 3rd person pronoun; used as reflexive <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- himself
- werede -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite of <werian, werede, wered> wear; defend, protect -- protected
- oþ -- adverbial conjunction; <oð> until -- until
- hē -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- he
- on -- preposition; <on> on(to), upon -- upon
- þone -- definite article; accusative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- æþeling -- strong noun, masculine; accusative singular of <æðeling> nobleman, prince -- prince
- lōcude -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person singular preterite of <locian, locode, locod> look -- looked
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- then
- ūt -- adverb; <ūt> out -- out
- rǣsde -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite of <rǣsan, rǣsde, rǣsed> rush, hasten -- rushed
- on -- preposition; <on> on(to), upon -- to
- hine -- 3rd person pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- him
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- hine -- 3rd person pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- him
- miclum -- adverb; <micel> much, very -- severely
- gewundode -- weak verb, class II; 3rd person singular preterite of <gewundian, gewundode, gewundod> wound -- wounded
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- then
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- alle -- adjective; nominative plural of <eall> all -- all
- on -- preposition; <on> on(to), upon -- against
- þone -- definite article; accusative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyning -- strong noun, masculine; accusative singular of <cyning> king -- king
- wǣrun -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were # continued, kept on...
- feohtende -- strong verb, class III; present participle of <feohtan, feaht, fuhton, fohten> fight -- fighting
- oþ þæt -- adverbial conjunction; <oð þæt> until -- until
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- hine -- 3rd person pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- him
- ofslægenne -- strong verb, class VI; past participle of <ofslean, ofslōh, ofslōgon, ofslægen> slay, destroy -- slain # ofslōh or ofslōg
- hæfdon -- weak verb, class III; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <habban, hæfde, hæfd> have, possess -- had
Ond þā on þæs wīfes gebǣrum onfundon þæs cyninges þegnas þā unstilnesse, ond þā þider urnon swā hwelc swā þonne gearo wearþ, ond radost.
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- then
- on -- preposition; <on> on(to), upon -- upon
- þæs -- demonstrative used as 3rd person pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <sē, sēo, ðæt> he, she, it -- his
- wīfes -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <wīf> wife, woman -- lady's
- gebǣrum -- strong noun, neuter; dative plural of <gebǣre> cry, behavior -- outcries
- onfundon -- strong verb, class III; 3rd person plural preterite of <onfindan, onfond, onfundon, onfunden> find out, realize -- discovered
- þæs -- definite article; genitive singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyninges -- strong noun, masculine; genitive singular of <cyning> king -- king's
- þegnas -- strong noun, masculine; nominative plural of <þegn> thane, warrior -- attendants
- þā -- definite article; accusative singular feminine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- unstilnesse -- strong noun, feminine; accusative singular of <unstilnes> disturbance, tumult -- disturbance
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- ...
- þider -- adverb; <þider> thither -- there
- urnon -- strong verb, class III; 3rd person plural preterite of <yrnan, arn, urnon, urnen> run -- ran
- swā hwelc swā -- pronoun; <swā hwilc swā> whosoever -- whoever
- þonne -- adverb; <þonne> then, when -- ...
- gearo -- adjective; nominative singular of <gearo> prepared, ready -- ready # i.e., armed himself
- wearþ -- strong verb, class III; 3rd person singular preterite of <weorðan, wearð, wurdon, worden> become, happen -- got
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- radost -- adjective; superlative of <hraðe> quick, hasty -- the quickest
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- hiera -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- of them
- se -- definite article; nominative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- æþeling -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <æðeling> nobleman, prince -- prince
- gehwelcum -- indefinite pronoun; dative singular masculine of <gehwylc> each, every one -- each one
- feoh -- strong noun, neuter; accusative singular of <feoh> cattle, goods, money -- money
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- feorh -- strong noun, masc/neut; accusative singular of <feorh> life -- life
- gebēad -- strong verb, class II; 3rd person singular preterite of <gebēodan, gebēad, gebudon, geboden> offer -- offered # i.e., if they would surrender
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- but
- hiera -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- of them
- nǣnig -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + adjective; <ǣnig> any -- not one
- hit -- 3rd person pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- it
- geþicgean -- strong verb, class V; infinitive of <geþicgan, geþeah, geþǣgon, geþegen> take, accept, receive -- accept
- nolde -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <willan> wish, be willing -- would # double negative, for emphasis
ac hīe simle feohtende wǣran oþ hīe alle lǣgon būtan ānum Bryttiscum gīsle, ond sē swīþe gewundad wæs.
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- ac -- conjunction; <ac> and, but, however -- and
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- simle -- adverb; <simle> ever, always -- ...
- feohtende -- strong verb, class III; present participle of <feohtan, feaht, fuhton, fohten> fight -- fighting
- wǣran -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- went on
- oþ -- adverbial conjunction; <oð> until -- until
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- alle -- adjective; nominative plural of <eall> all -- all
- lǣgon -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person plural preterite of <licgan, læg, lǣgon, legen> lie, extend, be situated -- lay dead
- būtan -- preposition; <būton> without, except for -- except for
- ānum -- indefinite article; dative singular masculine of <ān> a, an, one -- one
- Bryttiscum -- proper adjective; dative singular masculine of <Bryttisc> British -- British # i.e., Celtic inhabitant of Britain...
- gīsle -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <gīsel> hostage -- hostage # ...held in pledge by (hence beholden to) Cynewulf
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- sē -- demonstrative used as 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <sē, sēo, ðæt> he, she, it -- he
- swīþe -- adverb; <swīðe> very, exceedingly -- severely
- gewundad -- weak verb, class II; past participle of <gewundian, gewundode, gewundod> wound -- wounded
- wæs -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- was
Þā on morgenne gehīerdun þæt þæs cyninges þegnas, þe him beæftan wǣrun, þæt se cyning ofslægen wæs, þā ridon hīe þider, ond his aldormon Ōsrīc, ond Wīferþ his þegn, ond þā men þe hē beæftan him lǣfde ǣr,
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- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- when
- on -- preposition; <on> on(to), upon -- in
- morgenne -- strong noun, masculine; dative singular of <morgen> morning -- the morning
- gehīerdun -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person plural preterite of <gehīeran, gehīerede, gehīered> hear (of) -- heard
- þæt -- subordinating conjunction; <þæt> that -- ... # correlative with þæt below
- þæs -- definite article; genitive singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyninges -- strong noun, masculine; genitive singular of <cyning> king -- king's
- þegnas -- strong noun, masculine; nominative plural of <þegn> thane, warrior -- thanes
- þe -- relative particle; <þe> that, which, who -- who
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- him
- beæftan -- preposition; <beæftan> behind -- behind # postposition (often used by this writer)
- wǣrun -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were # continued, kept on...
- þæt -- subordinating conjunction; <þæt> that -- that # correlative with þæt above
- se -- definite article; nominative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyning -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <cyning> king -- king
- ofslægen -- strong verb, class VI; past participle of <ofslean, ofslōh, ofslōgon, ofslægen> slay, destroy -- slain
- wæs -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- was
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- ...
- ridon -- strong verb, class I; 3rd person plural preterite of <rīdan, rād, ridon, riden> ride -- rode
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- þider -- adverb; <þider> thither -- thither
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- with
- his -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- his
- aldormon -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ealdor-monn> nobleman, lit. older man -- nobleman
- Ōsrīc -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ōsrīc> Osric -- Osric
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- Wīferþ -- proper noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Wīferþ> Wiferth -- Wiferth
- his -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- his
- þegn -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <þegn> thane, warrior -- thane
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- þā -- definite article; nominative plural of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- men -- strong noun, masculine; nominative plural of <monn> man, person -- men
- þe -- relative particle; <þe> that, which, who -- who
- hē -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- he
- beæftan -- preposition; <beæftan> behind -- behind # postposition (often used by this writer)
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- him
- lǣfde -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite of <lǣfan, lǣfde, lǣfed> leave, bequeath -- left
- ǣr -- adverb; <ǣr> ere, before, formerly -- previously
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- þone -- definite article; accusative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- æþeling -- strong noun, masculine; accusative singular of <æðeling> nobleman, prince -- prince
- on -- preposition; <on> on(to), upon -- at
- þǣre -- definite article; dative singular feminine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- byrig -- strong noun, feminine; dative singular of <burg> enclosure, stonghold -- stonghold
- mētton -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person plural preterite of <mētan, mētte, mēted> meet, find -- (they) met
- þǣr -- adverb; <þǣr> there, where -- where
- se -- definite article; nominative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyning -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <cyning> king -- king
- ofslægen -- strong verb, class VI; past participle of <ofslean, ofslōh, ofslōgon, ofslægen> slay, destroy -- slain
- læg -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person singular preterite of <licgan, læg, lǣgon, legen> lie, extend, be situated -- lay
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- þā -- definite article; accusative plural of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- gatu -- strong noun, neuter; accusative plural of <geat> gate -- gates
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- them # i.e., the royal forces
- tō -- preposition; <tō> (in)to -- against # postposition
- belocen -- strong verb, class II; past participle of <belūcan, belēac, belucon, belocen> close, lock, shut -- locked
- hæfdon -- weak verb, class III; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <habban, hæfde, hæfd> have, possess -- (they) had
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- þā -- demonstrative used as 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <sē, sēo, ðæt> he, she, it -- they
- þǣrtō -- adverb; <þǣr tō> thereto -- there
- ēodon -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <gān> go, walk, move -- went
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- then
- gebēad -- strong verb, class II; 3rd person singular preterite of <gebēodan, gebēad, gebudon, geboden> offer -- offered # i.e., if they would surrender
- hē -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- he
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- to them # to the royal forces (which now greatly outnumbered those of Cyneheard)
- hiera -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- their
- āgenne -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <āgen> own -- own
- dōm -- strong noun, masculine; accusative singular of <dōm> doom, decision; glory -- choice # i.e. a chance to "write their own tickets" for...
- fēos -- strong noun, neuter; genitive singular of <feoh> cattle, goods, money -- of money
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- londes -- strong noun, neuter; genitive singular of <lond> land, realm, country -- (of) land
- gif -- conjunction; <gif> if -- if
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- to him
- þæs -- definite article; genitive singular neuter of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- rīces -- weak noun, neuter; genitive singular of <rīce> kingdom, reign -- kingdom
- ūþon -- preterite-present verb, class III; 3rd person plural preterite subjunctive of <unnan, ann, unnon, ūðe> grant, bestow -- granted
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- to them # to the royal forces (which now greatly outnumbered those of Cyneheard)
- cȳþdon -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person plural preterite of <cȳðan, cȳðde, cȳðed> reveal, make known -- they revealed # they = Cyneheard & his men
- þæt -- subordinating conjunction; <þæt> that -- that # correlative with þæt above
- hiera -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- their
- mǣgas -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <mǣg> kinsman -- kinsmen
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- them # i.e., the royal forces
- mid -- preposition; <mid> with -- with
- wǣron -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were
- þā -- demonstrative used as 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <sē, sēo, ðæt> he, she, it -- they
- þe -- relative particle; <þe> that, which, who -- who
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- from them # Cyneheard and his men
- from -- adverb; <fram> away -- away
- noldon -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <willan> wish, be willing -- wouldn't (go)
Ond þā cuǣdon hīe þæt him nǣnig mǣg lēofra nǣre þonne hiera hlāford, ond hīe nǣfre his banan folgian noldon.
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- but
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- ...
- cuǣdon -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person plural preterite of <cweðan, cwæð, cwǣdon, cweden> say, speak -- said
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- þæt -- subordinating conjunction; <þæt> that -- that # correlative with þæt above
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- to them # to the royal forces (which now greatly outnumbered those of Cyneheard)
- nǣnig -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + adjective; <ǣnig> any -- no
- mǣg -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <mǣg> kinsman -- kinsman
- lēofra -- adjective; comparative of <lēof> lief, dear, beloved -- more dear
- nǣre -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive of <wesan> be, happen -- was # double negative
- þonne -- adverb; <þonne> then, when -- than # (with comparative above)
- hiera -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- their
- hlāford -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <hlāford> lord, master -- lord
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- nǣfre -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + adverb; <ǣfre> ever, always -- never
- his -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- his
- banan -- weak noun, masculine; accusative singular of <bana> bane, slayer -- slayer
- folgian -- weak verb, class II; infinitive of <folgian, folgode, folgod> follow, obey, serve -- follow
- noldon -- contraction; adverb <ne> not + anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <willan> wish, be willing -- would # double negative
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- then
- budon -- strong verb, class II; 3rd person plural preterite of <bēodan, bēad, budon, boden> bid, command, offer -- offered
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- hiera -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- (to) their
- mǣgum -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <mǣg> kinsman -- kinsmen # among the prince's men
- þæt -- subordinating conjunction; <þæt> that -- that # correlative with þæt above
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- gesunde -- adjective; nominative plural of <gesund> safe, unharmed -- unharmed
- from -- adverb; <fram> away -- away
- ēodon -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <gān> go, walk, move -- could walk
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- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- but
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- cuǣdon -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person plural preterite of <cweðan, cwæð, cwǣdon, cweden> say, speak -- said
- þæt -- subordinating conjunction; <þæt> that -- that # correlative with þæt above
- tæt -- definite article; nominative singular neuter of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- ilce -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ilca> same -- same (thing)
- hiera -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- (to) their
- gefērum -- weak noun, masculine; dative plural of <gefēra> companion, comrade -- comrades
- geboden -- strong verb, class II; past participle of <gebēodan, gebēad, gebudon, geboden> offer -- offered
- wǣre -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive of <wesan> be, happen -- would be
- þe -- relative particle; <þe> that, which, who -- which
- ǣr -- adverb; <ǣr> ere, before, formerly -- before
- mid -- preposition; <mid> with -- with
- þām -- definite article; dative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyninge -- strong noun, masculine; dative singular of <cyning> king -- king
- wǣrun -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were # continued, kept on...
Þā cuǣdon hīe þæt hīe hīe þæs ne onmunden 'þon mā þe ēowre gefēran þe mid þām cyninge ofslægene wǣrun.'
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- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- then
- cuǣdon -- strong verb, class V; 3rd person plural preterite of <cweðan, cwæð, cwǣdon, cweden> say, speak -- said
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- þæt -- subordinating conjunction; <þæt> that -- that # correlative with þæt above
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; used as reflexive <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- themselves
- þæs -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <sē, sēo, ðæt> that -- of this # of the offer
- ne -- adverb; <ne> not -- not
- onmunden -- preterite-present verb, class IV; 3rd person plural preterite subjunctive of <onmunan, onman, onmunon, onmunde> esteem, remember, think worthy -- did...think...worthy
- þon -- adverb; <þonne> then, when -- any # (with comparative below)
- mā -- adjective; anomalous comparative of <micel> much, great -- more # (idiomatic)
- þe -- conjunction; <þe> than, where -- than # (with comparative above)
- ēowre -- 2nd person pronoun; used as adjective <ðū> you -- your
- gefēran -- weak noun, masculine; nominative plural of <gefēra> companion, comrade -- companions
- þe -- relative particle; <þe> that, which, who -- who
- mid -- preposition; <mid> with -- with
- þām -- definite article; dative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- cyninge -- strong noun, masculine; dative singular of <cyning> king -- king
- ofslægene -- strong verb, class VI; past participle of <ofslean, ofslōh, ofslōgon, ofslægen> slay, destroy -- slain
- wǣrun -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were # continued, kept on...
Ond hīe þā ymb þā gatu feohtende wǣron oþ þæt hīe þǣrinne fulgon ond þone æþeling ofslōgon; ond þā men þe him mid wǣrun,
Expand All
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- þā -- adverb; <þā> then, when -- then
- ymb -- preposition; <ymbe> at, around -- at
- þā -- definite article; accusative plural of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- gatu -- strong noun, neuter; accusative plural of <geat> gate -- gates
- feohtende -- strong verb, class III; present participle of <feohtan, feaht, fuhton, fohten> fight -- fighting
- wǣron -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were
- oþ þæt -- adverbial conjunction; <oð þæt> until -- until
- hīe -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative plural of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- they
- þǣrinne -- adverb; <þǣr inne> therein -- therein
- fulgon -- strong verb, class III; 3rd person plural preterite of <fēolan, fealh, fulgon, folen> reach, penetrate -- penetrated
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- þone -- definite article; accusative singular masculine of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- æþeling -- strong noun, masculine; accusative singular of <æðeling> nobleman, prince -- prince
- ofslōgon -- strong verb, class VI; 3rd person plural preterite of <ofslean, ofslōh, ofslōgon, ofslægen> slay, destroy -- slew
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- þā -- definite article; nominative plural of <se, sēo, ðæt> the -- the
- men -- strong noun, masculine; nominative plural of <monn> man, person -- men
- þe -- relative particle; <þe> that, which, who -- who
- him -- 3rd person pronoun; dative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- him
- mid -- preposition; <mid> with -- with
- wǣrun -- anomalous verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- were # continued, kept on...
alle būtan ānum, sē wæs þæs aldormonnes godsunu; ond hē his feorh generede, ond þēah hē wæs oft gewundad.
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- alle -- adjective; nominative plural of <eall> all -- all
- būtan -- preposition; <būton> without, except for -- but
- ānum -- indefinite article; dative singular masculine of <ān> a, an, one -- one
- sē -- demonstrative used as relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <sē, sēo, ðæt> who, which, that -- who
- wæs -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- was
- þæs -- demonstrative used as 3rd person pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <sē, sēo, ðæt> he, she, it -- his
- aldormonnes -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ealdor-monn> nobleman, lit. older man -- nobleman's
- godsunu -- strong noun, masculine; nominative singular of <godsunu> godson -- godson
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- and
- hē -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- he
- his -- 3rd person pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- his
- feorh -- strong noun, masc/neut; accusative singular of <feorh> life -- life
- generede -- weak verb, class I; 3rd person singular preterite of <generian, generede, genered> save, protect -- saved
- ond -- conjunction; <and> and -- ...
- þēah -- adverbial conjunction; <þēah> yet, though, however -- though
- hē -- 3rd person pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <hē, hēo, hit> he, she, it -- he
- wæs -- anomalous verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of <wesan> be, happen -- was
- oft -- adverb; <oft> often, frequently -- much
- gewundad -- weak verb, class II; past participle of <gewundian, gewundode, gewundod> wound -- wounded
Lesson Text
Ond þā ongeat se cyning þæt, ond hē on þā duru ēode, ond þā unhēanlīce hine werede oþ hē on þone æþeling lōcude, ond þā ūt rǣsde on hine ond hine miclum gewundode; ond hīe alle on þone cyning wǣrun feohtende oþ þæt hīe hine ofslægenne hæfdon. Ond þā on þæs wīfes gebǣrum onfundon þæs cyninges þegnas þā unstilnesse, ond þā þider urnon swā hwelc swā þonne gearo wearþ, ond radost. Ond hiera se æþeling gehwelcum feoh ond feorh gebēad, ond hiera nǣnig hit geþicgean nolde; ac hīe simle feohtende wǣran oþ hīe alle lǣgon būtan ānum Bryttiscum gīsle, ond sē swīþe gewundad wæs. Þā on morgenne gehīerdun þæt þæs cyninges þegnas, þe him beæftan wǣrun, þæt se cyning ofslægen wæs, þā ridon hīe þider, ond his aldormon Ōsrīc, ond Wīferþ his þegn, ond þā men þe hē beæftan him lǣfde ǣr, ond þone æþeling on þǣre byrig mētton þǣr se cyning ofslægen læg — ond þā gatu him tō belocen hæfdon — ond þā þǣrtō ēodon. Ond þā gebēad hē him hiera āgenne dōm fēos ond londes, gif hīe him þæs rīces ūþon; ond him cȳþdon þæt hiera mǣgas him mid wǣron, þā þe him from noldon. Ond þā cuǣdon hīe þæt him nǣnig mǣg lēofra nǣre þonne hiera hlāford, ond hīe nǣfre his banan folgian noldon. Ond þā budon hīe hiera mǣgum þæt hīe gesunde from ēodon; ond hīe cuǣdon þæt tæt ilce hiera gefērum geboden wǣre þe ǣr mid þām cyninge wǣrun. Þā cuǣdon hīe þæt hīe hīe þæs ne onmunden 'þon mā þe ēowre gefēran þe mid þām cyninge ofslægene wǣrun.' Ond hīe þā ymb þā gatu feohtende wǣron oþ þæt hīe þǣrinne fulgon ond þone æþeling ofslōgon; ond þā men þe him mid wǣrun, alle būtan ānum, sē wæs þæs aldormonnes godsunu; ond hē his feorh generede, ond þēah hē wæs oft gewundad.
Translation
When the king grasped this, he went to the door and nobly protected himself until he looked upon the prince, and then rushed out to him and severely wounded him; then they all were fighting against the king, until they had slain him. Then, upon his lady's outcries, the king's attendants discovered the disturbance, and ran there, whoever got ready the quickest. The prince offered each one of them money and life, but not one of them would accept it; and they went on fighting until they all lay dead except for one British hostage, and he was severely wounded.
When in the morning the king's thanes, who were behind him, heard that the king was slain, they rode thither, with his nobleman Osric, and Wiferth his thane, and the men who he previously left behind him; they met the prince at the stonghold where the king lay slain -- they had locked the gates against them -- and they went there. Then he offered to them their own choice of money and land, if they granted the kingdom to him; they revealed to them that their kinsmen were with them, they who wouldn't (go) away from them. But they said that no kinsman was more dear to them than their lord, and they never would follow his slayer. Then they offered to their kinsmen, that they could walk away unharmed; but they said that the same thing would be offered to their comrades which were before, with the king. Then they said that they did not think themselves worthy of this "any more than your companions who were slain with the king." And then they were fighting at the gates until they penetrated therein and slew the prince, and the men who were with him, all but one, who was his nobleman's godson; and he saved his life, though he was much wounded.
Grammar
11 The Anomalous Verb willan
A new anomalous verb found in this lesson is willan 'wish, be willing'. Its forms are reflected in the following table:
| willan | Indicative | Subjunctive | Imperative | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. Pres. | wile | wile | ||||
| 2 Sg. Pres. | wilt | wile | wile | |||
| 3 Sg. Pres. | wile | wile | ||||
| Pl. Pres. | willað | willen | willað | |||
| 1 Sg. Pret. | wolde | wolde | ||||
| 2 Sg. Pret. | woldest | wolde | ||||
| 3 Sg. Pret. | wolde | wolde | ||||
| Pl. Pret. | woldon | wolden |
From willan, wolde come modern English 'will, would'. The present participle is willende 'willing'; no past participle is attested. Spelling variations double or undouble the letter 'l', and might replace 'i' with 'y'.
12 Weak Verbs in Class III
Our text in this lesson contains the verb habban 'have, possess'; the text in lesson 4 contains secgan (also spelled secgean) 'say'; the text in lesson 10 contains libban 'live'. We conjugate these three to illustrate the weak verbs in Class III, which exhibit variations (columns 1, 2, and 3). There are few other surviving examples of verbs in this class; even in our examples, "defects" may be observed: irregularities in supposedly regular verbs! It seems that the Anglo-Saxons were abandoning Weak III as a verb class and were using Weak II conjugation rules instead.
| Weak III | 1 | 2 | 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | habban 'have' | secg(e)an 'say' | libban, lifian 'live' | |||
| Inflected Infin. | tō habbanne | tō secg(e)anne | tō libbanne | |||
| Imperative Sg. | hafa | sege, saga | liofa | |||
| Imperative Pl. | habbað | secg(e)að | libbað, lifiað | |||
| Pres. Participle | hæbbende | secgende | libbende, lifigende | |||
| Past Participle | hæfd | sægd, sǣd | lifd | |||
| Gerund | habbenne | secgenne | lifienne | |||
| Present Indicative | 1 | 2 | 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | hæbbe | secge | libbe, lifge | |||
| 2 Sg. | hæfst, hafast | segst, sægst | lifast | |||
| 3 Sg. | hæfð, hafað | segð, sægeð | lifað | |||
| Plural | habbað | secgað | libbað | |||
| Present Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | hæbbe | secge | libbe | |||
| Plural | habben | secgen | libben | |||
| Preterite Indicative | 1 | 2 | 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | hæfde | sægde, sǣde | lifde | |||
| 2 Sg. | hæfdest | sægdest, sǣdest | lifdest | |||
| 3 Sg. | hæfde | sægde, sǣde | lifde | |||
| Plural | hæfdon | sægdon, sǣdon | lifdon | |||
| Preterite Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | hæfde | sægde, sǣde | lifde | |||
| Plural | hæfden | sægden, sǣden | lifden |
13 Strong Verbs in Class II
Strong Class II verbs exhibit the four-vowel ablaut pattern -ēo-, -ēa-, -u-, -o-, although a few verbs in this class have -ū- instead of -ēo- for reasons unknown.
Our text in this lesson contains the verbs bēodan 'bid, command, offer' and belūcan 'lock, close, shut'; the text in lesson 9 contains bedrēosan 'bereave, deprive of'; and the text in lesson 1 contains oftēon 'deny, deprive'. We conjugate these four to illustrate the strong verbs in Class II, which exhibit variations (columns 1, 2, 3, and 4). Note that reconstructing oftēon (column 4) is known to be problematic, but we do not engage in this discussion.
| Strong II | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | bēodan 'bid' | belūcan 'lock' | bedrēosan 'bereave' | oftēon 'deny' | ||||
| Inflected Infin. | tō bēodanne | tō belūcanne | tō bedrēosanne | tō oftēanne | ||||
| Imperative Sg. | bēod | belūc | bedrēos | oftēoh | ||||
| Imperative Pl. | bēodað | belūcað | bedrēosað | oftēað | ||||
| Pres. Participle | bēodende | belūcende | bedrēosende | oftēonde | ||||
| Past Participle | boden | belocen | bedroren | oftogen | ||||
| Gerund | bēodenne | belūcenne | bedrēosenne | oftēenne | ||||
| Present Indicative | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | bēode | belūce | bedrēose | oftēe | ||||
| 2 Sg. | bēodest | belūcest | bedrēosest | oftēest | ||||
| 3 Sg. | bēodeð | belūceð | bedrēoseð | oftēeð | ||||
| Plural | bēodað | belūcað | bedrēosað | oftēað | ||||
| Present Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | bēode | belūce | bedrēose | oftēe | ||||
| Plural | bēoden | belūcen | bedrēosen | oftēen | ||||
| Preterite Indicative | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | bēad | belēac | bedrēas | oftēah | ||||
| 2 Sg. | bude | beluce | bedrure | oftuge | ||||
| 3 Sg. | bēad | belēac | bedrēas | oftēah | ||||
| Plural | budon | belucon | bedruron | oftugon | ||||
| Preterite Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | bude | beluce | bedrure | oftuge | ||||
| Plural | buden | belucen | bedruren | oftugen |
14 Strong Verbs in Class III
Due to the differential effects of ancient sound changes not discussed here, Strong Class III verbs fall into four subclasses:
- for verbs with nasal + consonant after the vowel, the ablaut pattern is -i- (or -y-), -a- (or -o-), -u-, -u-;
- for verbs with l + consonant after the vowel, the ablaut pattern is -(i)e-, -ea-, -u-, -o-;
- for verbs with r or h + consonant after the vowel, the ablaut pattern is -eo-, -ea-, -u-, -o-;
- otherwise, the ablaut pattern is generally -e-, -æ-, -u-, -o-.
The text in lesson 2 contains the verb singan 'sing'; the text in lesson 1 contains gieldan 'yield, pay'; our text in this lesson contains feohtan 'fight'; and for the 4th subclass, of which no example appears in our texts, we arbitrarily select berstan 'burst'. We conjugate these four to illustrate the strong verbs in Class III, which exhibit variations in ablaut (columns 1, 2, 3, and 4) as described above.
| Strong III | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | singan 'sing' | gieldan 'yield' | feohtan 'fight' | berstan 'burst' | ||||
| Inflected Infin. | tō singanne | tō gieldanne | tō feohtanne | tō berstanne | ||||
| Imperative Sg. | sing | gield | feoht | berst | ||||
| Imperative Pl. | singað | gieldað | feohtað | berstað | ||||
| Pres. Participle | singende | gieldende | feohtende | berstende | ||||
| Past Participle | sungen | golden | fohten | borsten | ||||
| Gerund | singenne | gieldenne | feohtenne | berstenne | ||||
| Present Indicative | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | singe | gielde | feohte | berste | ||||
| 2 Sg. | singest | gieldest | feohtest | berstest | ||||
| 3 Sg. | singeð | gieldeð | feohteð | bersteð | ||||
| Plural | singað | gieldað | feohtað | berstað | ||||
| Present Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | singe | gielde | feohte | berste | ||||
| Plural | singen | gielden | feohten | bersten | ||||
| Preterite Indicative | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | sang, song | geald | feaht | bærst | ||||
| 2 Sg. | sunge | gulde | fuhte | burste | ||||
| 3 Sg. | sang, song | geald | feaht | bærst | ||||
| Plural | sungon | guldon | fuhton | burston | ||||
| Preterite Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | sunge | gulde | fuhte | burste | ||||
| Plural | sungen | gulden | fuhten | bursten |
A sampling of modern English verbs descended from other OE Strong III verbs found in our lesson texts includes begin, bind, cringe, find, spring, wind, and yell, two of which became weak.
15 Preterite-Present Verbs in Class III
Some verbs in Old English (and other Germanic languages) underwent a regular change in meaning with consequent morphological evolution; in particular, the preterite forms of certain strong verbs came to have present-tense meanings, and in order to convey preterite sense these verbs acquired new, weak past-tense inflectional endings. These are called preterite-present verbs, and they are organized into classes depending on the ablaut patterns of their forebears. For example, certain verbs in Strong Class III gave rise to [all and only] Preterite-Present Class III verbs. The evolutionary change may be described as follows:
- the old infinitive, gerund, imperative, and all present forms were lost;
- the old preterite singular form (with 2nd ablaut vowel intact) was then used for the new present 1st/3rd person singular;
- the old preterite plural stem (with 3rd ablaut vowel intact) was then used in the new infinitive, gerund, imperative, and remaining present forms;
- the old past participle stem (with 4th ablaut vowel intact) was then used for the new preterite forms, which acquired weak (-d or -t) endings;
- the old past participle, unchanged, retained its grammatical role.
N.B. By no means do we imply a strict evolutionary sequence, 1-4! It is merely simpler to describe the end results in this way. Also the preterite-present verb paradigms, despite the seemingly complete "rules" (above) used in reconstruction, are in practice seldom fully attested; hence, such reconstructions must be taken with the usual grain of salt.
There are four principal parts of every preterite-present verb; these are always its infinitive, its 3rd person present singular, its present plural, and its preterite singular; the past participle is not included because, from these four forms, one may (in theory) construct the complete conjugation.
The preterite > present evolution, whatever the historical details, affected certain verbs in Strong Verb Classes I-VI; a number of these verbs became modals, exemplified by modern English 'can', 'could', 'may', 'might', 'should', etc.
The text in lesson 2 contains the preterite-present verb cunnan 'can, be able to', which evolved into modern English can and could; the text in this lesson contains the preterite-present verb unnan 'grant, bestow'. We conjugate these two to illustrate the preterite-present verbs in Class III.
| Pret-Pres. III | 1 | 2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Infinitive | cunnan 'can' | unnan 'grant' | ||
| Inflected Infin. | tō cunnanne | tō unnanne | ||
| Imperative Sg. | cunn | unn | ||
| Imperative Pl. | cunnað | unnað | ||
| Pres. Participle | cunnende | unnende | ||
| Past Participle | cūðen | ūðen | ||
| Gerund | cunnenne | unnenne | ||
| Present Indicative | 1 | 2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | cann, conn | ann | ||
| 2 Sg. | cunnest | unnest | ||
| 3 Sg. | cann, conn | ann | ||
| Plural | cunnon | unnon | ||
| Present Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | cunne | unne | ||
| Plural | cunnen | unnen | ||
| Preterite Indicative | 1 | 2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | cūðe | ūðe | ||
| 2 Sg. | cūðest | ūðest | ||
| 3 Sg. | cūðe | ūðe | ||
| Plural | cūðon | ūðon | ||
| Preterite Subjunctive | 1 | 2 | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | cūðe | ūðe | ||
| Plural | cūðen | ūðen |
As usual, spelling variations abound in surviving texts. Another modern English verb descended from an OE Preterite-Present III verb found in our lesson texts is dare.
