Indo-European Lexicon
PIE Etymon and IE Reflexes
Below we display: a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) etymon adapted from Pokorny, with our own English gloss; our Semantic Field assignment(s) for the etymon, linked to information about the field(s); an optional Comment; and Reflexes (derived words) in various Indo-European languages, organized by family/group in west-to-east order where Germanic is split into West/North/East families and English, our language of primary emphasis, is artificially separated from West Germanic. IE Reflexes appear most often as single words with any optional letter(s) enclosed in parentheses; but alternative full spellings are separated by '/' and "principal parts" appear in a standard order (e.g. masculine, feminine, and neuter forms) separated by commas.
Reflexes are annotated with: Part-of-Speech and/or other Grammatical feature(s); a short Gloss which, especially for modern English reflexes, may be confined to the oldest sense; and some Source citation(s) with 'LRC' always understood as editor. Keys to PoS/Gram feature abbreviations and Source codes appear below the reflexes; at the end are links to the previous/next etyma [in Pokorny's alphabetic order] that have reflexes.
All reflex pages are currently under active construction; as time goes on, corrections may be made and/or more etyma & reflexes may be added.
Pokorny Etymon: ag̑- 'to lead, drive, agitate'
Semantic Field(s): to Lead, to Drive
Indo-European Reflexes:
| Family/Language | Reflex(es) | PoS/Gram. | Gloss | Source(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Celtic | ||||
| Old Irish: | ag- | vb | to conduct | GED |
| ār | vb | to slaughter | GED | |
| imm-agim | vb | to send about | GED | |
| Ogma | prop.n | god who invented ogham (Celtic mythology) | AHD | |
| Middle Irish: | ogom, ogum | n | ogham | W7 |
| Irish: | ogham | n.masc | ogham | W7 |
| Old Welsh: | agit | vb | to go | LRC |
| Welsh: | amaeth | n | husbandman | GED |
| Gaulish: | amb | n.masc | highly ranked servant (not a slave) | GED |
| English | ||||
| Old English: | ac(h), ah, oc | conj | but, and, however | ASD |
| ambeht | n.str.masc | servant | GED | |
| ambeht | n.str.neut | office | GED | |
| ambihtian | vb.wk | to serve | GED | |
| e(a)x, æx | n.fem | axis, axle | ASD/W7 | |
| eaxl(e), eaxel, ex(e)l | n.fem | shoulder | ASD/CDC/W7 | |
| Middle English: | ac | conj | but | MEV |
| act | n | act, deed | W7 | |
| active | adj | active | W7 | |
| actour | n | actor | AHD | |
| actuel | adj | actual | W7 | |
| agent | n | agent | W7 | |
| agonie | n | agony | W7 | |
| alleggen | vb | to allege | W7 | |
| ambages | n | ambage | W7 | |
| ambassadour | n | ambassador | W7 | |
| assay, assai, asaye, asaie | n | assay | CDC/W7 | |
| axel, axil, æxl, exl | n | axle | CDC | |
| axeltre | n | axletree | W7 | |
| axiom | n | axiom | AHD | |
| axis | n | axis | AHD | |
| ele | n | aisle, wing of building | AHD | |
| exacten | vb | to exact | W7 | |
| examinen | vb | to examine | W7 | |
| ile | n | aisle | W7 | |
| pedagoge | n | pedagogue | W7 | |
| squatten | vb | to squat | W7 | |
| synagoge | n | synagogue | W7 | |
| English: | act | n | deed; statute; affectation | AHD/W7 |
| act | vb | to feign, perform, simulate, represent | W7 | |
| action | n | deed, doing of a thing | TLL | |
| active | adj | lively, characterized by movement | AHD/W7 | |
| actor | n | doer, one who acts (e.g. part in play) | AHD/W7 | |
| actress | n | doer, female who acts (e.g. part in play) | W7 | |
| actual | adj | real, true; current | AHD/W7 | |
| actuary | n | clerk, registrar | AHD/W7 | |
| actuate | vb.trans | to put into action/motion | AHD/W7 | |
| agendum, agenda | n | program, list/plan/outline of events | AHD/W7 | |
| agent | n | doer; means; representative | AHD/W7 | |
| agile | adj | nimble, able to move quickly/easily | AHD/W7 | |
| agitate | vb | to excite, disturb, give motion to | AHD/W7 | |
| -agogue | n.sfx | substance promoting secretion/expulsion | AHD/W7 | |
| agony | n | torture, anguish, intense pain in mind/body | AHD/W7 | |
| aileron | n | moveable part of airplane wing | AHD/W7 | |
| aisle | n | passage between seat rows | AHD/W7 | |
| ala, alae | n | wing, winglike part/structure | AHD/W7 | |
| alar | adj | alary | AHD | |
| alary | adj | re: wings | AHD | |
| alate(d) | adj | having alae | AHD/W7 | |
| aliform | adj | wing-shaped, having winglike extension(s) | AHD/W7 | |
| allege | vb.trans | to assert/declare without proof | AHD/W7 | |
| alula | n | bastard wing: bird's thumb | AHD/W7 | |
| ambage | n | ambiguity, circumlocution | AHD/W7 | |
| ambassador | n | official envoy, esp. foreign government representative | AHD/W7 | |
| ambiguous | adj | doubtful, unclear, equivocal | AHD/W7 | |
| anagoge | n | mystical reading of text | AHD/W7 | |
| antagonize | vb.trans | to act against, provoke hostility in | AHD/W7 | |
| assay | n | test, trial, effort, attempt; scrutiny | AHD/W7 | |
| axilla | n | armpit | AHD/W7 | |
| axiology | n | study of values/valuation | AHD/W7 | |
| axiom | n | common maxim, well-accepted truth | AHD/W7 | |
| axis | n | line about which something rotates | AHD/W7 | |
| axle | n | shaft around which wheel turns | AHD/W7 | |
| axletree | n | fixed bar/beam with bearings for wheels | AHD/W7 | |
| axon | n | nerve-cell process | AHD/W7 | |
| axoneme | n | cytoskeletal structure in cilium | AHD | |
| axoplasm | n | axon's intracellular cytoplasm | AHD | |
| cache | n | hiding-place, something hidden | AHD/W7 | |
| choragus | n | leader of choir/chorus | AHD/W7 | |
| chronaxie | n | a certain electric excitation time | AHD/W7 | |
| coagulum | n | coagulated mass/substance | AHD/W7 | |
| cogent | adj | compelling, convincing | AHD/W7 | |
| demagogue | n | leader who champions the plebs | AHD/W7 | |
| embassage | n | embassy, message/commission entrusted to ambassador | AHD/W7 | |
| embassy | n | official position/residence of ambassador | AHD/W7 | |
| emmenagogue | n | catalyst of menstrual discharge | AHD/W7 | |
| epact | n | lunisolar intercalary period | AHD/W7 | |
| essay | n | effort; literary composition | AHD/W7 | |
| exact | adj | precise | AHD/W7 | |
| exact | vb.trans | to draw out from, extort | AHD/W7 | |
| examine | vb.trans | to test/inspect closely | AHD/W7 | |
| exigent | adj | requiring drastic/immediate action | AHD/W7 | |
| exiguous | adj | scanty in amount | AHD/W7 | |
| fumigate | vb.trans | to apply smoke/gas to | AHD/W7 | |
| fustigate | vb.trans | to cudgel; criticize severely | AHD/W7 | |
| glucagon | n | pancreatic hormone | AHD | |
| hypnagogic | adj | relating to drowsiness before sleep | AHD/W7 | |
| intransigent | adj | uncompromising, irreconcilable | AHD/W7 | |
| levigate | vb.trans | to polish, smooth | AHD/W7 | |
| litigate | vb | to wage legal contest | AHD/W7 | |
| mystagogue | n | disseminator of mystical doctrines | AHD/W7 | |
| navigate | vb | to steer through water/other medium | AHD/W7 | |
| objurgate | vb.trans | to denounce harshly | AHD/W7 | |
| ogham | n | 5th-6th century Irish alphabet of notches | AHD/W7 | |
| pedagogue | n | teacher, schoolmaster | AHD/W7 | |
| protagonist | n | leading/sympathetic role in story | AHD/W7 | |
| redact | vb | to frame, draw up, write down | AHD | |
| retroactive | adj | extending in scope/effect to a prior time | AHD/W7 | |
| squat | vb | to sit/crouch over ground | AHD/W7 | |
| stratagem | n | clever trick/artifice of war | AHD/W7 | |
| strategist | n | one skilled in strategy | W7 | |
| strategy | n | art/science of military command | W7 | |
| synagogue | n | Jewish congregation/house of worship | AHD/W7 | |
| transact | vb | to carry out, perform | AHD/W7 | |
| variegate | vb.trans | to diversify in external appearance | AHD/W7 | |
| British English: | antagonise | vb.trans | to antagonize | LRC |
| West Germanic | ||||
| Old Frisian: | ax(e)le | n.fem | shoulder | ASD |
| Dutch: | as | n.fem | axis, axle | ASD |
| Old Saxon: | ahsla | n.fem | shoulder | ASD |
| ambahteo | n.masc | servant | GED | |
| ambahtman | n.masc | servant | GED | |
| ambaht-skepi | n.masc | service | GED | |
| ambaht-skipi | n.masc | service | GED | |
| Old High German: | ahsa | n.fem | axis, axle | ASD |
| ahsala | n.fem | shoulder | ASD | |
| ambaht, ampaht | n.str.masc | servant | ASD/GED | |
| ambahtēn | vb.wk | to serve | GED | |
| ambaht(i) | n.str.neut | office | GED | |
| Middle High German: | ahse | n.fem | axis, axle | ASD |
| ahsel | n.fem | shoulder | ASD | |
| German: | Achse, Axe | n.fem | axis, axle | ASD |
| Achsel | n.fem | shoulder | ASD | |
| agitieren | vb | to campaign, agitate | LRC | |
| North Germanic | ||||
| Old Norse: | aka | vb | to travel in vehicle | W7 |
| ambátt | n.fem | servant | ASD | |
| öxull | n | axle | AHD | |
| öxultrē | n | axletree | W7 | |
| Old Icelandic: | aka | vb | to lead, drive, travel in wagon | GED |
| ambātt | n.str.fem | maid, concubine | GED | |
| embætta | vb.wk | to wait on | GED | |
| embætti | n.str.neut | service, office | GED | |
| Icelandic: | axull, öxull | n.masc | axis, axle | ASD |
| öxl | n.fem | shoulder | ASD | |
| öxul-trē | n.neut | axle-tree | ASD | |
| Norwegian: | oksl, aksl, axel | n | shoulder | CDC |
| Danish: | axe | n.masc/fem | axis, axle | ASD |
| axel | n.masc/fem | shoulder | ASD | |
| Swedish: | axel | n.masc | axis, axle, shoulder | ASD |
| East Germanic | ||||
| Gothic: | amsa | n.masc | shoulder | ASD |
| andbahts | n.masc | servant | GED | |
| Italic | ||||
| Oscan: | acum | vb | to drive | LRC |
| Latin: | acta, actōrum | n.masc | act, deed, record | AHD/CLD |
| activus | adj | active | W7 | |
| actor, actōris | n.masc | actor, driver, manager | AHD/CLD | |
| actuarius | n.masc | actuary, shorthand writer | W7 | |
| actum | n.neut | act, record, thing done | W7 | |
| actus, actūs | n.masc | doing; gesture, expression | LRC | |
| agens, agentis | adj/vb.ptc | effective; acting | W7 | |
| agilis | adj | agile | W7 | |
| agitō, agitāre, agitāvī, agitatus | vb.freq | to move, impel, agitate | ELD/W7 | |
| agō, agere, ēgī, āctum | vb | to do, act, lead, drive | LRC | |
| āla | n.fem | ala; axle | TLL | |
| allego, allegāre | vb | to cite, allege, dispatch | W7 | |
| alula | n.dim | alula, little wing | W7 | |
| ambactus, ambacti | n.masc | vassal, servant; dependent | AHD/CLD | |
| *ambāges | n.fem | delay, detour, circumlocution | CLD/W7 | |
| ambigo, ambigere | vb | to dispute, hesitate, wander about | W7 | |
| ambiguus | adj | ambiguous | W7 | |
| axilla | n.fem | armpit | W7 | |
| axioma | n.masc | axiom | W7 | |
| axis, assis | n.masc | axis, axle | W7 | |
| axle | n | axle, axis | CDC | |
| choragus | n.masc | person in charge of paying for choral production | W7 | |
| coactō, coactāre, coēgī, coactus | vb | to compel, press together | W7 | |
| coagulum | n.neut | curdling agent | W7 | |
| cōgō, cōgere | vb | to compel, drive together | W7 | |
| exāmen | n.neut | examination | W7 | |
| exāminō, exāmināre | vb | to examine | W7 | |
| exigō, exigere, exactus | vb | to demand, measure, drive out | W7 | |
| exiguus | adj | very small | W7 | |
| fumigo, fumigare, fumigavi, fumigatus | vb | to fumigate | W7 | |
| jurgo, jurgāre | vb | to quarrel, take to law | W7 | |
| lego, legāre | vb | to bequeath, depute, send as emissary | W7 | |
| litigo, litigāre, litigāvī, litigatus | vb | to sue, dispute, litigate | W7 | |
| mystagogus | n.masc | mystagogue, initiator | W7 | |
| navigo, navigare, navigavī, navigatus | vb | to navigate | W7 | |
| objurgō, objurgāre, objurgāvī, objurgatus | vb | to blame, punish, objurgate | W7 | |
| paedagogus | n.masc | pedagogue | W7 | |
| retroago, retroagere | vb | to reverse, drive back | W7 | |
| transigo, transigere, transegi, transactus | vb | to transact, complete, drive through | W7 | |
| variego, variegare, variegavi, variegatus | vb | to vary, variegate | W7 | |
| Vulgar Latin: | coactico, coacticare | vb | to press together | W7 |
| coatio, coactīre | vb | to press together | W7 | |
| Late Latin: | actualis | adj | actual | W7 |
| -agogus | sfx | promoting expulsion | W7 | |
| agonia | n.fem | agony | W7 | |
| anagoge | n.fem | anagoge, initiation, education | W7 | |
| epacta | n.fem | an intercalar period added to the calendar | W7 | |
| exagium | n.neut | act of weighing | W7 | |
| *exlītigāre | vb | to clear at law | AHD | |
| fustigatus | vb.ptc | fustigated, criticized | W7 | |
| fustigo, fustigāre | vb | to fustigate, criticize severely | W7 | |
| synagoga | n.fem | synagogue | W7 | |
| Middle Latin: | assagium, assaia | n | trial, assay | CDC |
| essagium, essayum | n | essay, examination | CDC | |
| Medieval Latin: | actuo, actuare, actuavi, actuatus | vb | to actuate | W7 |
| ambactia | n | mission, embassy, legation | AHD | |
| New Latin: | -agogon | sfx | -agogue, who teaches | W7 |
| -agogue | sfx | -agogue, who teaches | W7 | |
| axon | n.neut | axon; wooden cube bearing Greek laws | W7 | |
| Portuguese: | ala | n | wing | TLL |
| ensaio | n | trial | CDC | |
| Spanish: | ala | n | wing | TLL |
| asayo | n | assay | CDC | |
| ensayo | n | trial | CDC | |
| intransigente | adj | intransigent, not making any concessions | W7 | |
| transigente | vb.pres.ptc | tractable, making compromises | W7 | |
| transigir | vb | to compromise | W7 | |
| Catalan: | assatg | n | assay | CDC |
| ensatg | n | trial | CDC | |
| Old French: | acte | n | act | AHD |
| actual | adj | active, actual | AHD | |
| agonie | n | agony | AHD | |
| aile | n | wing | AHD | |
| alegier | vb | to justify, vindicate | AHD | |
| alleguer | vb | to allege, pretend | W7 | |
| ambassadeur | n | ambassador | AHD | |
| assai | n.masc | assay | W7 | |
| axiome | n | axiom | AHD | |
| ele | n | aisle, wing of building | AHD | |
| eslegier | vb | to pay a fine | AHD | |
| essai | n.masc | essay | W7 | |
| synagoge | n.fem | synagogue | W7 | |
| Middle French: | actif | adj | active | W7 |
| actuel | adj | actual | W7 | |
| agile | adj | agile | W7 | |
| ambages | n.masc | delays, detours, circumlocutions | W7 | |
| epacte | n.fem | epact | W7 | |
| esquatir | vb | to squat | W7 | |
| essai | n.masc | tentative | W7 | |
| examiner | vb | to examine | W7 | |
| pédagoge | n.masc | pedagogue | W7 | |
| French: | agile | adj | agile | AHD |
| -agogue | n.sfx | teaching | W7 | |
| aile | n | wing | TLL | |
| aileron | n.dim | aileron | AHD | |
| ambassade | n.fem | embassy | GED | |
| cache | n.fem | a hideout | W7 | |
| cacher | vb | to hide | W7 | |
| chronaxie | n.fem | time needed to stimulate nervous/muscular tissue with electricity | R1/W7 | |
| hypnagogique | adj | hypnagogic, inducing sleep | W7 | |
| quatir | vb | to press | W7 | |
| rétroactif | adj | retroactive | W7 | |
| Old Occitan: | assai, assag | n | assay | CDC |
| essai | n | essay | CDC | |
| Italian: | ala | n | wing | TLL |
| (as)saggio | n | assay | CDC | |
| stratagèmma | n.masc | trick, stratagem | W7 | |
| Baltic | ||||
| Lithuanian: | aszis | n.fem | axis, axle | ASD |
| Hellenic | ||||
| Greek: | ἀγείρω | vb | to assemble | GED |
| ἄγω | vb | to lead, drive | GED | |
| -agōgos, -agōgon | adj.sfx | leading, inducing; expelling | W7 | |
| agōgos | adj | leading | W7 | |
| agōn | n.masc | fight, competition | W7 | |
| agōnia | n.fem | anguish, struggle | W7 | |
| agōnizesthai | vb | to compete | W7 | |
| agōnistēs | n.masc | actor, competitor | W7 | |
| ἀνάγω | vb | to refer, lead up | LRC | |
| anagōgē | n.fem | anagoge, reference | W7 | |
| antagōnizestyai | vb | to compete, antagonize | W7 | |
| axia | n.fem | value | W7 | |
| axios | adj | worthy, sufficient | W7 | |
| axioun | vb | to think worthy | W7 | |
| axiōma | n.neut | honor | W7 | |
| axōn | n.masc | axle | W7 | |
| dēmagōgos | n.masc | orator | W7 | |
| ἐπάγω | vb | to invite, bring in, intercalate | LRC | |
| epaktos | adj | foreign, alien | W7 | |
| mystagōgos | n.masc | mystagogue, initiator | W7 | |
| paidagōgos | n.masc | pedagogue | W7 | |
| προάγω | vb | to proceed, go before | LRC | |
| prōtagōnistēs | n.masc | character, competitor | W7 | |
| stratēgein | vb | to maneuver, be a general | W7 | |
| stratēgēma | n.neut | strategem, war maneuver, guile in war | W7 | |
| stratēgos | n.masc | general, strategist | W7 | |
| synagein | vb | to bring together | W7 | |
| συνάγω | vb | to bring together | LRC | |
| synagōgē | n.fem | synagogue, assembly | W7 | |
| ὑπάγω | vb | to lead on, retire | LRC | |
| chorēgos | n.masc | choragus | W7 | |
| Late Greek: | anagōgē | n | anagoge | W7 |
| Armenian | ||||
| Classical Armenian: | artakʿs | adv | out | LRC |
| Armenian: | acem | vb | to lead | GED |
| Iranian | ||||
| Avestan: | azaiti | vb | to drive | GED |
| Indic | ||||
| Sanskrit: | aksha | n | wheel, axle | ASD |
| ájati | vb | to drive | GED | |
| Tocharian | ||||
| Tocharian: | āk- | vb | to lead, travel | GED |
Key to Part-of-Speech/Grammatical feature abbreviations:
| Abbrev. | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|
| adj | = | adjective |
| adv | = | adverb(ial) |
| conj | = | conjunction |
| dim | = | diminutive |
| fem | = | feminine (gender) |
| freq | = | frequentative (aspect) |
| masc | = | masculine (gender) |
| n | = | noun |
| neut | = | neuter (gender) |
| pres | = | present (tense) |
| prop | = | proper |
| ptc | = | participle |
| sfx | = | suffix |
| str | = | strong (inflection) |
| trans | = | transitive |
| vb | = | verb |
| wk | = | weak (inflection) |
Key to information Source codes (always with 'LRC' as editor):
| Code | Citation | |
|---|---|---|
| AHD | = | Calvert Watkins: The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed. (2000) |
| ASD | = | Joseph Bosworth and T. Northcote Toller: An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898) |
| CDC | = | W.D. Whitney and B.E. Smith: The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (1889-1911) |
| CLD | = | Cassell's Latin Dictionary (1959, rev. 1968) |
| ELD | = | Charlton T. Lewis: An Elementary Latin Dictionary (1999) |
| GED | = | Winfred P. Lehmann: A Gothic Etymological Dictionary (1986) |
| LRC | = | Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas, Austin |
| MEV | = | J.R.R. Tolkien: A Middle English Vocabulary (1922) |
| R1 | = | Josette Rey-Debove and Alain Rey, eds. Le Nouveau Petit Robert (1993) |
| TLL | = | Frederick Bodmer: The Loom of Language (1944) |
| W7 | = | Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1963) |
