Classical Armenian Online
Lesson 2
Todd B. Krause, John A.C. Greppin, and Jonathan Slocum
The Yervanduni Dynasty
Yervanduni is the name given to a family whose members were appointed by the Medes and Persians as governors in Armenia over the period 585 - 200 B.C. At least four of these governors were named Yervand. Their ethnic background is not clear. Most now believe the Urartuan and Armenian ethnicities to have been distinct, and it is not certain from which culture the Yervandunis originated. The Yervandunis were related somehow to the Persians, if not by blood, at least through bonds of marriage.
By roughly 610 B.C., the Medes and Babylonians had divided the remnants of the Assyrian empire, and the Medes began to consolidate their power in the north. Having captured portions of Urartu and Mesopotamia, by 585 B.C. the Medes were a dominant force in the region. They appointed a Yervanduni family member to administer the Urartuan province.
Median hegemony did not last long. A number of the subjugated states rose in rebellion under the leadership of the Persian Cyrus. Among those rebelling were the Yervandunis. By 550 B.C. Cyrus had overthrown the Medes and established the beginnings of the Achaemenid dynasty, one which would greatly expand Persian influence through the exploits of Cyrus' son Cambyses, and later those of Darius I.
The reasons are not clear, but somehow, after the fall of the Urartuan kingdom, Armenian culture gained in prestige and was eventually recognized as one of the important satrapies listed by Darius I on the Behistun rock (ca. 520 B.C.). This is the first record of the name Armenia. Darius had apparently campaigned against the Armenians when they rose in revolt against his taxes. To quell such rebellious tendencies, Darius may have installed a governor from another family, since there is no mention of the Yervandunis until the next century.
Under Achaemenid rule, the Armenians were free to live according to their own cultural dictates, as long as they paid tribute to the Persian empire. Most of our knowledge of Armenia during this period comes from the Anabasis of Xenophon, who travelled through the region with Greek troops in 401 - 400 B.C. Xenophon tells of a ruler Yervand, who was son-in-law to the Persian king Artaxerxes I. The Armenian satrapy evidently consisted of a non-Armenian enclave in the highlands, perhaps remnants of the Urartuan culture, and whom some believe to be the ancestors of the modern Kurds. Xenophon mentions underground winter quarters in some towns, an abundance of food, and a type of beer drunk through a reed straw.
Persian culture left an indelible imprint in Armenia. Although Aramaic seems to have been the language of administration during this period, Armenian is infused with several words borrowed from Persian. Armenians also seem to have adopted many Persian social practices, as well as something of the Zoroastrian pantheon. The Armenians dedicated several temples and festivals to Anahit, goddess of fertility and wisdom.
By the middle of the fourth century B.C., the Achaemenid dynasty had fallen into decline, allowing the Yervandunis to consolidate their power and create a nearly autonomous Armenian province. Darius III, supported in battle by another Armenian satrap named Yervand, finally fell before the onslaught of Alexander the Great in roughly 330 B.C. Under Alexander, and, after his death in 323 B.C., under Seleucid reign, Greek culture began to impose itself on the region.
Alexander's conquests did not take him through Armenian territory, however, and so the fall of the Persian empire left the Yervandunis an opportunity for consolidating a completely independent rule over the Armenian region. Initially Alexander appointed governors over Armenia, but the Yervandunis led a revolt and refused taxation. They reasserted their autonomy later in the face of the Seleucids. In the end, three distinct regions opened up in the Armenian region. There was a western region, Lesser Armenia, which periodically fell under Seleucid rule and was never completely annexed by the Yervandunis. To the east of this was the region of Dsopk, which acted as a buffer region between Lesser Armenia and the third region, Greater Armenia, in which the Yervanduni foothold was firm. Yervanduni rule finally came to an end in roughly 200 B.C., when they were overthrown by the Armenian noble Artashes, incited to revolt by the Seleucids.
Reading and Textual Analysis
Moses Khorenatsi (that is, Moses of Khoren) is the father of Armenian history and is traditionally believed to have written in the fifth century A.D. Other scholars have suggested the seventh century. Some of his work is based on a mythological history, which he describes with the same belief as the later true historical renderings of the Persian era up to the establishment of Christianity. This reading is taken from his History, Book II, Chapter 30.
- ընդ -- preposition; <ընդ> through, along, by way of; against; during; instead of, in exchange for; with, in the company of; under -- At
- այն -- demonstrative pronoun; undeclined form of <այն> that, that over there -- that
- ժամանակս -- noun; accusative plural of <ժամանակ> time -- time
- եկաց -- verb; 3rd singular aorist of <գամ> I come, go -- took
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- ...
- գործ -- noun; accusative singular of <գործ> work, deed -- the post # եկաց ի գործ -- 'attained the office of' + gen.
- հազարապետութեան -- noun; genitive singular of <հազարապետութիւն> chiliarch, commander -- of... chiliarch
- կայսեր -- noun; genitive singular of <կայսր> chief, emperor -- the emperor's
- ի վերայ -- compound preposition; <ի վերայ> upon, over -- over
- Փիւնիկեցւոց -- proper noun; genitive plural of <Փիւնիկեցի> Phoenician -- the Phoenicians
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- Պաղեստինացւոց -- proper noun; genitive plural of <Պաղեստինացիկ> Palestinian -- Palestinians
- Ասորւոց -- proper noun; genitive plural of <Ասորի> Assyrian, Syrians -- the Syrians
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- Միջագետաց -- proper noun; genitive plural of <Միջագետք> Mesopotamia -- Mesopotamians
- Մառինոս -- proper noun; nominative singular of <Մարինոս> Marinus -- Marinus
- որդի -- noun; nominative singular of <որդի> son -- son
- Ստորգեայ -- proper noun; genitive singular of <Ստորգեւս> Storgius -- of Storgius
- առ -- preposition; <առ> to, toward (a person); beside; in the time of; in addition to -- to
- որ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular of <որ> who, what, which -- And... him
- առաքեաց -- verb; 3rd singular aorist of <առաքեմ> I send -- sent
- Աբգարոս -- proper noun; nominative singular of <Աբգարոս> Abgar -- Abgar
- երկուս -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural of <երկու> two -- two
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- from among
- գլխաւորաց -- noun; ablative plural of <գլխաւոր> notable, head -- notables
- իւրոց -- reflexive possessive adjective; ablative plural of <իւր> him-, her-, it-self -- his
- զՄարիհաբ -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + proper noun; accusative singular of <Մարիհաբ> Mar Ihab -- Mar Ihab
- բդեշխն -- noun; accusative singular of <բդեշխ> consul + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- the consul
- Աղձնեաց -- proper noun; genitive plural of <Աղձնիք> (pl.) Aghjnik' -- of Aghjnik'
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- զՇամշագրամ -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + proper noun; accusative singular of <Շամշագրան> Shamshagram -- Shamshagram
- նահապետ -- noun; accusative singular of <նահապետ> nahapet, senior prince -- senior prince
- Ապահունեաց -- proper noun; genitive plural of <Ապահունեիք> (pl.) Apahunis -- of the Apahunis
- տոհմին -- noun; genitive singular of <տոհմ> dynasty, tribe + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- of the dynasty
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- as well as
- զԱնան -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + proper noun; accusative singular of <Անան> Anan -- Anan
- հաւատարիմ -- noun; accusative singular of <հաւատարիմ> confidant -- confidant
- իւր -- reflexive pronoun; genitive singular of <իւր> him-, her-, it-self -- his
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- to
- քաղաքն -- noun; accusative singular of <քաղաք> city -- the city
- Բեթքուբին -- proper noun; accusative singular of <Բեթքուբին> Bet Kubin -- of Bet Kubin
- զգացուցանել -- verb; infinitive undeclined form of <զգացուցանեմ> I inform -- to inform... of
- նմա -- pronoun; dative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- him
- զպատճառս -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + noun; accusative plural of <պատճառ> basis, cause, reason -- the reasons
- երթալոյն -- verb; infinitive genitive singular of <երտալ> to go + definite marker; <՟ն> the -- of... going
- իւրոյ -- reflexive possessive adjective; genitive singular of <իւր> him-, her-, it-self -- his
- յարեւելս -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of + noun; accusative plural of <արեւելք> East, the Orient -- to the East
- ցուցանելով -- verb; infinitive instrumental singular of <ցուցանեմ> I show -- by showing
- նմա -- pronoun; dative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- him
- զգիր -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + noun; accusative singular of <գիր> writing, text -- the text
- ուխտին -- noun; genitive singular of <ուխտ> agreement, covenant + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- of the agreement
- որ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular of <որ> who, what, which -- which (was)
- ընդ -- preposition; <ընդ> through, along, by way of; against; during; instead of, in exchange for; with, in the company of; under -- between
- Արտաշէս -- proper noun; accusative singular of <Արտաշէս> Artashes -- Artashes
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- ընդ -- preposition; <ընդ> through, along, by way of; against; during; instead of, in exchange for; with, in the company of; under -- ...
- եղբարս -- noun; accusative plural of <եղբայր> brother -- brothers
- իւր -- reflexive pronoun; genitive singular of <իւր> him-, her-, it-self -- his
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- առնել -- verb; infinitive undeclined form of <առնեմ> I do, make -- to make
- զնա -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + pronoun; accusative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- him
- թիկունս -- noun; accusative plural of <թիկունք> (pl.) back, shoulder; help, auxiliary -- an aid
- օգնականութեան -- noun; genitive singular of <աւգնկանութիւն> cooperation; help, support -- of (his) support # or dative
- որոց -- relative pronoun; genitive plural of <որ> who, what, which -- (And) they # genitive subject of participle
- եկեալ -- verb; past participle undeclined form of <գամ> I come, go -- upon arriving
- գտին -- verb; 3rd plural aorist of <գտանեմ> I find, get, obtain -- found
- զնա -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + pronoun; accusative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- him
- յԵլեւթերոյպօլիս -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of + proper noun; locative singular of <Ելեւթերոյպօլիս> Eleutheropolis -- in Eleutheropolis
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- And
- նորա -- pronoun; genitive singular of <նա> he, she, it -- he # genitive subject of participle
- ընկալեալ -- verb; past participle undeclined form of <ընդունիմ> I receive -- having received
- զնոսա -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + pronoun; accusative plural of <նա> he, she, it -- them
- խաղաղութեամբ -- noun; instrumental singular of <խաղաղութիւն> peace -- with peace
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- մեծարանօք -- noun; instrumental plural of <մեծարան> respect, honor -- honor
- առնէ -- verb; 3rd singular present of <առնեմ> I do, make -- gave
- պատասխանի -- noun; accusative singular of <պատասխանի> answer -- an answer
- Աբգարու -- proper noun; dative singular of <Աբգարոս> Abgar -- to Abgar
- մի -- imperative adverb; <մի> (do) not -- Do not
- կասկածէր -- verb; 2nd singular present imperative of <կասկածեմ> I doubt, suspect -- doubt
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- ...
- կայսերէ -- noun; ablative singular of <կայսր> chief, emperor -- the emperor
- սակս -- preposition; <սակ> on account of, because of -- on account of
- այնր -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular of <այն> that, that over there -- that
- միայն -- adverb; <միայն> only, merely -- merely
- զի -- conjunction; <զի> for; that; because -- that
- հարկելն -- verb; infinitive used as complement <հարկիմ> I pay tribute + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- to pay (his) tribute off # definite marker is often appended to the first accented word of a subordinate clause
- լիով -- adverb; <լիով> fully -- in full
- փութասցիս -- verb; 2nd singular aorist subjunctive mediopassive of <փութամ> I hasten, make haste -- you hasten
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- And
- նոցա -- pronoun; genitive plural of <նա> he, she, it -- they # genitive subject of participle
- դարձեալ -- verb; past participle undeclined form of <դառնամ> I return -- having returned
- անտի -- adverb; <անտի> from there -- from there
- ելին -- verb; 3rd plural aorist of <ելանեմ> I come, go up -- went up
- յԵրուսաղէմ -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of + proper noun; accusative singular of <Երուսաղէմ> Jerusalem -- to Jerusalem
- տեսանել -- verb; infinitive used as complement <տեսանեմ> I see -- to see
- զՓրկիչն -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + noun; accusative singular of <փրկիչ> savior + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- Savior
- մեր -- pronoun; genitive plural of <ես> I -- our
- Քրիստոս -- proper noun; accusative singular of <Քրիստոս> Christ -- Christ
- վասն -- preposition; <վասն> because of, on account of, for the sake of -- on account of
- լրոյ -- noun; genitive singular of <լուր> hearing; news, report; voice -- of hearing
- համբաւոց -- noun; genitive plural of <համբաւ> news -- the news
- սքանչելագործութեանցն -- noun; genitive plural of <սքանչելագործութիւն> miracle + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- of the miracles
- որում -- relative pronoun; dative singular of <որ> who, what, which -- to this
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- ականատես -- noun; nominative singular of <ականատես> eyewitness -- witness
- եղեալ -- verb; past participle undeclined form of <եղանիմ> I become -- being
- պատմեցին -- verb; 3rd plural aorist of <պատմեմ> I report, tell -- they recounted (this)
- Աբգարու -- proper noun; dative singular of <Աբգարոս> Abgar -- to Abgar
- ընդ -- preposition; <ընդ> through, along, by way of; against; during; instead of, in exchange for; with, in the company of; under -- at
- որ -- relative pronoun; accusative singular of <որ> who, what, which -- this
- զարմացեալ -- verb; past participle undeclined form of <զարմանամ> I am astonished, marvel -- Astonished
- Աբգարու -- proper noun; genitive singular of <Աբգարոս> Abgar -- Abgar # genitive subject of participle
- հաւատաց -- verb; 3rd singular aorist of <հաւատամ> I believe -- recognized
- ճշմարտապէս -- adverb; <ճշմարտապէս> truly -- truly
- իբր -- conjunction; <իբր> like, as (if) -- as
- արդարեւ -- adverb; <արդարեւ> truly -- ...
- որդի -- noun; accusative singular of <որդի> son -- son
- Աստուծոյ -- proper noun; genitive singular of <Աստուած> God -- of God
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- ասէ -- verb; 3rd singular present of <ասեմ> I say -- said
- այն -- demonstrative pronoun; undeclined form of <այն> that, that over there -- These
- զօրութիւնք -- noun; nominative plural of <զաւրութիւն> miracle -- marvels
- ոչ -- adverb; <ոչ> no, not -- not
- մարդոյ -- noun; genitive singular of <մարդ> man -- of man
- են -- verb; 3rd plural present of <եմ> I am -- are
- այլ -- conjunction; <այլ> but -- but
- Աստուծոյ -- proper noun; genitive singular of <Աստուած> God -- of God
- զի -- conjunction; <զի> for; that; because -- for
- չիք -- adverb; <չ՟> not + indefinite pronoun; nominative singular of <*իք> something, anything -- there is no
- ոք -- indefinite pronoun; nominative singular of <ոք> someone, anyone -- one
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- among
- մարդկանէ -- noun; ablative singular of <մարդիկ> mankind, people -- men
- որ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular of <որ> who, what, which -- who
- կարէ -- verb; 3rd singular present of <կարեմ> I can, am able -- is able
- զմեռեալս -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + adjective used as substantive; accusative plural of <մերեալ> dead -- the dead
- յարուցանել -- verb; infinitive used as complement <յարուցանեմ> I raise -- to raise
- բայց -- conjunction; <բայց> but -- save
- միայն -- adjective; nominative singular of <միայն> only, solitary -- alone
- Աստուած -- proper noun; nominative singular of <Աստուած> God -- God
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- And
- քանզի -- conjunction; <քանզի> because -- because
- ապականեալ -- verb; past participle nominative singular of <ապականեմ> I corrupt -- corrupted
- էր -- verb; 3rd singular imperfect of <եմ> I am -- was
- մարմինն -- noun; nominative singular of <մարմին> body + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- body
- իւր -- reflexive pronoun; genitive singular of <իւր> him-, her-, it-self -- his
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- by
- չարաչար -- adjective; undeclined form of <չարաչար> terrible -- terrible
- ցաւոց -- noun; ablative plural of <ցաւ> pain -- pains
- որ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular of <որ> who, what, which -- which
- պատահեցին -- verb; 3rd plural aorist of <պատահեմ> I occur, befall -- had befallen
- նմա -- pronoun; dative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- him
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- in
- Պարսից -- proper noun; genitive plural of <Պարսք> (pl.) the Persians -- of the Persians
- աշխարհին -- noun; locative singular of <աշխարհ> land, realm + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- the land
- յառաջ -- adverb; <յառաջ> before, earlier -- before
- քան -- conjunction; <քան> than -- ...
- զեաւթն -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + adjective; undeclined form <եաւթն> seven -- seven
- ամ -- noun; accusative singular of <ամ> year -- year # when the cardinal number is undeclined, the substantive usually follows in the singular, cf. Section 17.1
- որ -- relative pronoun; accusative plural of <որ> who, what, which -- who # direct object of բժշկութեան
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- among
- մարդկանէ -- noun; ablative singular of <մարդիկ> mankind, people -- men
- ոչ -- adverb; <ոչ> no, not -- not
- եղեւ -- verb; 3rd singular aorist of <եղանիմ> I become -- there was
- նմա -- pronoun; dative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- for him
- հնար -- noun; nominative singular of <հնար> means -- a means
- բժշկութեան -- noun; genitive singular of <բժշկութիւն> healing, cure -- of curing
- ետ -- verb; 3rd singular aorist of <տամ> I give; permit, let -- he granted
- տանել -- verb; infinitive used as complement <տանիմ> I take -- to be taken
- նմա -- pronoun; dative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- to him
- թուղթ -- noun; accusative singular of <թուղթ> letter -- a letter
- աղաչանաց -- noun; genitive plural <աղաչանք> (pl.) supplication -- of entreaty
- գալ -- verb; infinitive of <գամ> I come, go -- to come
- եւ -- conjunction; <եւ> and; even, also, too -- and
- բժշկել -- verb; infinitive of <բժշկեմ> I cure -- cure
- զնա -- direct object marker; <զ՟> ... + pronoun; accusative singular of <նա> he, she, it -- him
- ի -- preposition; <ի> to, in(to), upon; at, under; from, out of, away from; from among; by, through the agency of -- of
- ցաւոցն -- noun; ablative plural of <ցաւ> pain + demonstrative suffix; <՟ն> that, that over there, the -- (his) pains
Lesson Text
Ընդ այն ժամանակս եկաց ի գործ հազարապետութեան կայսեր ի վերայ Փիւնիկեցւոց եւ Պաղեստինացւոց, Ասորւոց եւ Միջագետաց, Մառինոս որդի Ստորգեայ։ առ որ առաքեաց Աբգարոս երկուս ի գլխաւորաց իւրոց, զՄարիհաբ բդեշխն Աղձնեաց, եւ զՇամշագրամ նահապետ Ապահունեաց տոհմին, եւ զԱնան հաւատարիմ իւր՝ ի քաղաքն Բեթքուբին, զգացուցանել նմա զպատճառս երթալոյն իւրոյ յարեւելս, ցուցանելով նմա զգիր ուխտին՝ որ ընդ Արտաշէս եւ ընդ եղբարս իւր, եւ առնել զնա թիկունս օգնականութեան : Որոց եկեալ գտին զնա յԵլեւթերոյպօլիս : Եւ նորա ընկալեալ զնոսա խաղաղութեամբ եւ մեծարանօք, առնէ պատասխանի Աբգարու։ Մի կասկածէր ի կայսերէ սակս այնր, միայն զի հարկելն լիով փութասցիս : Եւ նոցա դարձեալ անտի, ելին յԵրուսաղէմ տեսանել զՓրկիչն մեր Քրիստոս վասն լրոյ համբաւոց սքանչելագործութեանցն։ որում եւ ականատես եղեալ պատմեցին Աբգարու : Ընդ որ զարմացեալ Աբգարու, հաւատաց ճշմարտապէս իբր արդարեւ որդի Աստուծոյ, եւ ասէ։ Այն զօրութիւնք ոչ մարդոյ են, այլ Աստուծոյ։ զի չիք ոք ի մարդկանէ որ կարէ զմեռեալս յարուցանել, բայց միայն Աստուած : Եւ քանզի ապականեալ էր մարմինն իւր ի չարաչար ցաւոց, որ պատահեցին նմա ի Պարսից աշխարհին յառաջ քան զեաւթն ամ, որ ի մարդկանէ ոչ եղեւ նմա հնար բժշկութեան, ետ տանել նմա թուղթ աղաչանաց, գալ եւ բժշկել զնա ի ցաւոցն
Translation
At that time Marinus, son of Storgius, took the post of the emperor's chiliarch over the Phoenicians and Palestinians, the Syrians and Mesopotamians. And to him Abgar sent two from among his notables, Mar Ihab, the consul of Aghjnik', and Shamshagram, a senior prince of the dynasty of the Apahunis, as well as Anan his confidant, to the city of Bet-Kubin, to inform him of the reasons of his going to the East by showing him the text of the agreement which was between Artashes and his brothers, and to make him an aid of his support. And they, upon arriving, found him in Eleutheropolis. And he, having received them with peace and honor, gave an answer to Abgar: Do not doubt the emperor on account of this, merely that you hasten to pay his tribute off in full. And they, having returned from there, went up to Jerusalem to see our Savior Christ on account of hearing the news of the miracles; and being witness to this, they recounted this to Abgar. Astonished at this, Abgar recognized him truly as son of God, and said: "These marvels are not of man but of God, for there is no one among men who is able to raise the dead, save God alone." And because his own body was corrupted by terrible pains, which had befallen him in the land of the Persians seven years before, and which among men there was not for him a means of curing, he granted to be taken to him a letter of entreaty to come and cure him of his pains....
Grammar
6 Nominal Declension
The remaining declensions of nouns and adjectives have variable stems. For the most part these stems end in the resonants ր, ղ, ն. Some substantives retain the resonant throughout the paradigm, while others do not. Of those that do, one finds changes in the stem-vowel preceding the resonant.
6.1 Stem Variation vs. Vocalic Alternation
An important distinction must be made between the concepts of stem variation and vocalic alternation. Vocalic alternation occurs whenever a morpheme is added which changes the stress of a word. It is an automatic process and occurs according to the rules described in the first lesson. It therefore plays no functional role in declension. Thus words such as առաջին 'first' (GDAb առաջնոյ), սուրբ 'holy' (GDAb սրբոյ), լոյս 'light' (GDAb լուսոյ), մէջ 'middle' (GDAb միջոյ) all show regular vocalic alternation as a result of addition of the morpheme -ոյ, which entails a change in stress. These are therefore all invariable-stem substantives, just as e.g. Աստուած 'God' (GDAb Աստուածոյ), բերան 'mouth' (GDAb բերանոյ), գետ 'river' (GDAb գետոյ). Stem variation, by contrast, is bound to declension; it is not the result of automatic stress shift and, as such, is in and of itself indicative of the case of a given noun. Thus ազն 'kind, race' displays forms NAc Sg. ազն and GDL Sg. ազին; the variation is not conditioned by any stress shift due to addition of a morpheme. It may happen, however, that in some words both stem variation and vocalic alternation take place: ձուկն 'fish', GDL *ձուկան > ձկան; դուստր 'daughter', GDL *դուստեր > դստեր; լեառն 'mountain', GDL *լեարին > լերին.
In general the declensions of variable stem substantives may be distinguished on the basis of whether the noun uses two or three stem variants within a paradigm. The following chart shows some possibilities of the two-stem declensions. The term 'obliques' specifies any case not explicitly mentioned under one stem or another.
| Stem 1: N Ac sg. | Stem 2: obliques, N Ac L pl. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nouns in -r, -ł | ||||
| oskr 'bone' | osker- | |||
| astł 'star' | asteł- | |||
| dustr 'daughter' | dster- | |||
| Nouns in -n | ||||
| himn 'foundation' | himan- | |||
| akn 'gem' | akan- | |||
| Stem 1: N Ac sg./pl., L pl. | Stem 2: obliques | |||
| Nouns in -n | ||||
| šun 'dog' | s'an- | |||
| tun 'house' | tan- | |||
| Most nouns in -iwn | ||||
| ariwn 'blood' | arean- | |||
| zerutʿiwn 'imprisonment' | zerutʿean- |
On the other hand there are three-stem declensions. These may be broken down as follows.
| Stem 1: N Ac sg. | Stem 2: obliques | Stem 3: N Ac L pl. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Most nouns in -n | ||||||
| jukn 'fish' | jkan- | jkun- | ||||
| duṙn 'door' | dran- | drun- | ||||
| Action nouns in -umn | ||||||
| šeržumn 'movement' | šeržman- | šeržmun- | ||||
| erdumn 'oath' | erdman- | erdmun- | ||||
| Words lacking -n in N Ac sg. | ||||||
| manuk 'child' | mankan- | mankun- | ||||
| ałǰik 'maiden' | ałǰkan- | ałǰkun- | ||||
| Stem 1: N Ac sg. | Stem 2: G D L (Ab) sg., N Ac L pl. | Stem 3: obliques | ||||
| azn 'nation, race' | azin- | azan- | ||||
| gaṙn 'lamb' | gaṙin- | gaṙan- | ||||
| harsn 'bride' | harsin- | harsan- |
The ablative singular is usually built from Stem 2, sometimes with loss of the vowel preceding -n; occasionally the ablative singular is built from Stem 3.
Certainly other classification systems are possible, and indeed, each grammar of Classical Armenian tends to have its own idiosyncratic declensional scheme. Notable among these is the system used by Schmitt in Grammatik des Klassisch-Armenischen. Schmitt sets out declensions according to theme: e.g. ա-, ի-, etc. declension, ր-, լ-, ն-stem; he then divides some of these into Primary Type (Haupttypus, here Ht) and Secondary Type (Nebentypus, here Nt). These types may be further divided into subclasses A and B, and these further into 1 and 2. In the following, where easily discernible, Schmitt's classification will be noted among the paradigms in order to facilitate the transition to previous work in the field. When necessary, the theme will be explicitly mentioned with the abbreviation T, so that T-ու refers to the ու-declension.
6.2 r- and ł-Stems
All nouns ending in ղ and most ending in ր retain these consonants in the oblique cases; in cases other than the N and Ac the vowel -ե- intercedes between the base and -ղ/-ր. Still other nouns show a diphthong, e.g. եւ, in the N and Ac singular which is shortened to ե in the remaining forms. The nouns ոսկր 'bone', աղբեւր 'source, fountain', and աստղ 'star', illustrate the declensions.
| T-ր, Ht | T-ր, Nt-A | T-ղ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| -ր/-եր | -եւր/-եր | -ղ/-եղ | ||||
| N Sg. | ոսկր | աղբեւր | աստղ | |||
| Ac | ոսկր | աղբեւր | աստղ | |||
| G | ոսկեր | աղբեր | աստեղ | |||
| D | ոսկեր | աղբեր | աստեղ | |||
| L | ոսկեր | աղբեր | աստեղ | |||
| Ab | ոսկերէ | աղբերէ | աստեղէ | |||
| I | ոսկերբ | աղբերբ | աստեղբ | |||
| N Pl. | ոսկերք | աղբերք | աստեղք | |||
| Ac | ոսկերս | աղբերս | աստեղս | |||
| G | ոսկերաց | աղբերաց | աստեղաց | |||
| D | ոսկերաց | աղբերաց | աստեղաց | |||
| L | ոսկերս | աղբերս | աստեղս | |||
| Ab | ոսկերաց | աղբերաց | աստեղաց | |||
| I | ոսկերաւք | աղբերաւք | աստեղաւք |
6.3 ն-Stems with Two Stems
Nouns whose stem ends in -ն are quite common in Classical Armenian. Many of these display two stems in their declension. Nouns of this sort fall into two categories according to which cases display different stems. In particular, one finds the types
- (a) Stem 1: NAc Sg.; Stem 2: oblique cases, NAcL Pl.;
- (b) Stem 1: NAc Sg., NAcL Pl.; Stem 2: oblique cases.
Again, the term 'oblique' refers to any case not explicitly mentioned. Examples of type-(a) are given by the nouns կողմն 'side', stems կողմն-/կողման-; and անուն 'name', stems անուն-/անուան-. Examples of type-(b) are given by the nouns տուն 'house', stems տուն-/տան-; and գերութիւն 'imprisonment', stems գերութիւն-/գերութեան-.
| Ht B | Ht B | Nt B2 | Nt B1 | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (a) | (a) | (b) | (b) | |||||
| կողմն | անուն | տուն | գերութիւն | |||||
| 'side' | 'name' | 'house' | 'imprisonment' | |||||
| N Sg. | կողմն | անուն | տուն | գերութիւն | ||||
| Ac | կողմն | անուն | տուն | գերութիւն | ||||
| G | կողման | անուան | տան | գերութեան | ||||
| D | կողման | անուան | տան | գերութեան | ||||
| L | կողման | անուան | տան | գերութեան | ||||
| Ab | կողմանէ | անուանէ | տանէ | գերութենէ | ||||
| I | կողմամբ | անուամբ | տամբ | գերութեամբ | ||||
| N Pl. | կողմանք | անուանք | տունք | գերութիւնք | ||||
| Ac | կողմանս | անուանս | տունք | գերութիւնս | ||||
| G | կողմանց | անուանց | տանց | գերութեանց | ||||
| D | կողմանց | անուանց | տանց | գերութեանց | ||||
| L | կողմանս | անուանս | տունս | գերութիւնս | ||||
| Ab | կողմանց | անուանց | տանց | գերութեանց | ||||
| I | կողմամբք | անուամբք | տամբք | գերութեամբք |
6.4 ն-Stems with Three Stems
Some ն-stem nouns display three stems throughout their declension. These also may be divided into two categories based on which stem appears in each case.
- (c) Stem 1: NAc Sg.; Stem 2: oblique cases; Stem 3: NAcL Pl.;
- (d) Stem 1: NAc Sg.; Stem 2: GDL(Ab) Sg., NAcL Pl.; Stem 3: oblique cases.
In nouns of type-(d), the ablative is typically built from stem 2, but occasionally from stem 3. Type-(c) is illustrated by the nouns դուռն 'door', stems դուռն-/դրան-/դրուն-; շարժումն 'imprisonment', stems շարժումն-/շարժման-/շարժմուն-; մանուկ 'child', stems մանուկ-/մանկան-/մանկուն-; աղջիկ 'maiden', stems աղջիկ-/աղջկան-/աղջկուն-. Type-(d) is illustrated by the nouns ազն 'race, kind', stems ազն-/ազին-/ազան-; գառն 'lamb', stems գառն-/գառին-/գառան-.
| Ht B | Ht B | Ht B | Ht B | Ht A | Ht A | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (c) | (c) | (c) | (c) | (d) | (d) | |||||||
| դուռն | շարժումն | մանուկ | աղջիկ | ազն | գառն | |||||||
| N Sg. | դուռն | շարժումն | մանուկ | աղջիկ | ազն | գառն | ||||||
| Ac | դուռն | շարժումն | մանուկ | աղջիկ | ազն | գառն | ||||||
| G | դրան | շարժման | մանկան | աղջկան | ազին | գառին | ||||||
| D | դրան | շարժման | մանկան | աղջկան | ազին | գառին | ||||||
| L | դրան | շարժման | մանկան | աղջկան | ազին | գառին | ||||||
| Ab | դրանէ | շարժմանէ | մանկանէ | աղջկանէ | ազնէ | գառնէ | ||||||
| I | դրամբ | շարժմամբ | մանկամբ | աղջկամբ | ազամբ | գառամբ | ||||||
| N Pl. | դրունք | շարժմունք | մանկունք | աղջկունք | ազինք | գառինք | ||||||
| Ac | դրունս | շարժմունս | մանկունս | աղջկունս | ազինս | գառինս | ||||||
| G | դրանց | շարժմանց | մանկանց | աղջկանց | ազանց | գառանց | ||||||
| D | դրանց | շարժմանց | մանկանց | աղջկանց | ազանց | գառանց | ||||||
| L | դրունս | շարժմունս | մանկունս | աղջկունս | ազինս | գառինս | ||||||
| Ab | դրանց | շարժմանց | մանկանց | աղջկանց | ազանց | գառանց | ||||||
| I | դրամբք | շարժմամբք | մանկամբք | աղջկամբք | ազամբք | գառամբք | ||||||
Notice the forms ազնէ and գառնէ, shortened from ազինէ and գառինէ respectively.
Some nouns exhibit features of both the (c) and (d) declension types. Examples are the nouns թոռն 'grandchild' and հարսն 'bride'.
| Nt A | Nt A | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| (c)+(d) | (c)+(d) | |||
| թոռն | հարսն | |||
| N Sg. | թոռն | հարսն | ||
| Ac | թոռն | հարսն | ||
| G | թոռին | հարսին | ||
| D | թոռին | հարսին | ||
| L | թոռին | հարսին | ||
| Ab | թոռնէ, թոռանէ | հարսնէ | ||
| I | թոռամբ | հարսամբ | ||
| N Pl. | թոռունք | հարսունք | ||
| Ac | թոռունս | հարսունս | ||
| G | թոռանց | հարսանց | ||
| D | թոռանց | հարսանց | ||
| L | թոռունս | հարսունս | ||
| Ab | թոռանց | հարսանց | ||
| I | թոռամբք | հարսամբք |
7 Demonstratives
7.1 Demonstrative Suffixes
Classical Armenian has three demonstrative suffixes which are attached to the end of nouns. These are
- -ս 'this, this here, this near to me';
- -դ 'that, that right there, that next to you';
- -ն 'that, that over there, that near to him'.
These correlate roughly to the use of Latin hic, iste, and ille, respectively. These particles, however, are indeclinable. Since Classical Armenian has no articles as such, an unqualified noun may be either definite or indefinite; these demonstrative suffixes are often used for marking a noun as definite (and in that sense overlap with զ-, which is pre-posed on definite nouns in the accusative). In this role -ն is by far the most commonly used; -ս and -դ are reserved for particular emphasis or change of subject. Note the possibility of overlap, e.g. աձսս could be either այս 'evil spirit' plus the accusative plural ending -ս, or the same noun in the singular but with the deictic suffix -ս. Moreover, one may find այսսս, that is, աձս + Ac Pl. -ս + suffix -ս.
There are a few tendencies in the usage of the demonstrative suffixes. Proper names rarely take demonstrative suffixes, e.g. թագաւոր-ն Պարսից 'the king of the Persians', where English inserts before 'Persians' an article which is not present in the Armenian. Another example is Արշակ արքայ 'Arshak the king'. When an adjective modifies a noun, typically only the noun receives a demonstrative suffix, e.g. վկայն սուրբ 'the holy martyr'. If a noun in the genitive qualifies a definite noun, typically the last word of the collocation receives the demonstrative suffix, e.g. բարեկան թագաւորի-ն 'the king's friend, the friend of the king'. Vocatives use the suffix -դ, e.g. Քրիստոս-դ 'O Christ'. Adjectives used as substantives may take demonstrative suffixes, as in չարն 'the evil one, Satan'; առաքեալքն 'the ones sent, the apostles', built from the participle առաքեալ 'sent'; գեղեցիկդ 'O beautiful one'.
Relative clauses may also take a demonstrative suffix. The suffix -ս, -դ, or -ն is added to the first stressed word of the relative clause.
7.2 Demonstrative Adjectives
The same threefold distinction as in the suffixes -ս, -դ, -ն is found in the demonstrative adjectives աձս 'this here', այդ 'that', այն 'that over there'. These adjectives also have a long form which is used as an emphatic. The threefold distinction is also made in the demonstrative pronouns սա, դա, նա, which may also function as the third person pronoun. Likewise the distinction is made in the pronoun and adjective սոյն 'this same', դոյն 'that same', նոյն 'that same there'. The paradigms of the -ն series are given below to illustrate the declensions.
| այ-ս, -դ, -ն | այ- (emph.) | ս-, դ-, ն-ա | ս-, դ-, ն-ոյն | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| N Sg. | այն | այն | նա | նոյն | ||||
| Ac | այն | այն | նա | նոյն | ||||
| G | այնր | այնորիկ | նորա | նորին, նորուն | ||||
| D | այնմ | այնմիկ | նմա | նմին | ||||
| L | այնմ | այնմիկ | նմա | նմին | ||||
| Ab | այնմ | այնմանէ | նմանէ | նմին | ||||
| I | այնու | այնուիկ | նովաւ | նովին, նովիմբ | ||||
| N Pl. | այնք | այնոքիկ | նոքա | նոքին, նոյնք | ||||
| Ac | այնս | այնոսիկ | նոսա | նոսին, նոյնս | ||||
| G | այնց | այնոցիկ | նոցա | նոցին, նոցունց | ||||
| D | այնց | այնոցիկ | նոցա | նոցին, նոցունց | ||||
| L | այնս | այնոսիկ | նոսա | նոսին, նոյնս | ||||
| Ab | այնց, այնցանէ | այնոցիկ | նոցա, նոցանէ | նոցին, նոցունց | ||||
| I | այնուք | այնոքիւք | նոքաւք | նոքիմբք, նոքումբք |
8 The Aorist System of Verbs
Classical Armenian has a two-stem verbal system, wherein each verb form pertains either to a present or to an aorist stem of a given root. Generally, one or both of the stems will contain a suffix inserted directly after the root, thus preceding the thematic vowel in present forms and preceding the endings in aorist forms. There are several such suffixes in the present system (-ան-, -ն-, -չ-, -նչ-), but only one type, namely -(V)ց-, in the aorist system. There are five basic distinctions in the two-stem system:
(a) Aorist stem extended:
| Present | Meaning | Aorist | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| փորյ-եմ | 'I tempt' | փորյ-եց-ի | ||||||
| հայ-իմ | 'I look' | հայ-եց-այ | ||||||
| աս-եմ | 'I say' | աս-աց-ի | ||||||
| որս-ամ | 'I hunt' | որս-աց-ի | ||||||
| յուս-ամ | 'I hope' | յուս-աց-այ |
(b) Present stem extended:
| Present | Meaning | Aorist | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| պագ-ան-եմ | 'I kiss' | պագ-ի | ||||||
| հեծ-ան-իմ | 'I ride' | հեծ-այ | ||||||
| փախ-չ-իմ | 'I flee' | փախե-այ |
(c) Both stems extended:
| Present | Meaning | Aorist | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| մոռ-ան-ամ | 'I forget' | մոռ-աց-այ | ||||||
| լ-ն-ում | 'I fill' | լ-ց-ի (3rd Sg. ելից, from root լի-) |
(d) Neither stem extended:
| Present | Meaning | Aorist | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| հան-եմ | 'I draw' | հան-ի | ||||||
| նստ-իմ | 'I sit down' | նստ-այ (root նիստ-) | ||||||
| թող-ում | 'I let' | թող-ի |
(e) Suppletive system:
| Present | Meaning | Aorist | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ըմպ-եմ | 'I drink' | արբ-ի | ||||||
| երթ-ամ | 'I go' | չոգ-այ |
Aorists without suffixes are termed root aorists. Other terms are strong or second aorists. Aorists with the -(V)ց suffix are sometimes known as weak or first aorists.
The distinction between present and aorist is not one of tense, but of aspect. Both imperfect and aorist indicative are past tenses; both present and aorist subjunctive lack tense altogether. Verbal forms built from the present stem denote a continuous, ongoing action -- an action in its development. By contrast, verbs forms built from the aorist stem refer to the completion of the action. These distinctions are without regard to the actual point on a timeline at which an action occurs; they point to the nature of the action described. In principle, then, one could find "present aorist" forms, "past present" forms, and so on. "Past present" forms, in this sense denoting past actions with continuous aspect, are essentially what the imperfect tense represents. There are no specifically "present aorist", that is, present completive forms; however the occasional use of the aorist subjunctive in the role of a future displays how the aorist may be used in reference to completive actions in the "non-past".
The aorist system also distinguishes two voices, active (A) and mediopassive (MP), by different sets of endings. The distinctions are discussed in the next lesson.
8.1 The Aorist Indicative
The endings of the aorist indicative are as follows.
| A | MP | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | -ի | -այ | ||
| 2 | -եր | -ար | ||
| 3 | - | -աւ | ||
| 1 Pl. | -աք | -աք | ||
| 2 | -էք, -իք | -այք, -արուք | ||
| 3 | -ին | -ան |
The verbs արգելում 'I hinder' and նստիմ 'I sit' illustrate root aorist paradigms. The verbs որսամ 'I hunt' and հայիմ 'I look' illustrate aorists with the suffix -(V)ց.
| root, A | -Vց, A | root, MP | -Vց, MP | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| արգելում | որսամ | նստիմ | հայիմ | |||||
| 'hinder' | 'hunt' | 'sit' | 'look' | |||||
| 1 Sg. | արգելի | որսացի | նստայ | հայեցայ | ||||
| 2 | արգելեր | որսացեր | նստար | հայեցար | ||||
| 3 | արգել | որսաց | նստաւ | հայեցաւ | ||||
| 1 Pl. | արգելաք | որսացաք | նստաք | հայեցաք | ||||
| 2 | արգելէք, արգելիք | որսացէք, որսացիք | նստայք, նստարուք | հայեցայք, հայեցարուք | ||||
| 3 | արգելին | որսացին | նստան | հայեցան |
The ending -արուք of the second person plural sometimes shows up as -երուք in certain verbs. For example, ճանաչեմ 'I know' has aorist ծանեայ 'I knew', with 2nd Pl. ծաներուք.
A given root may take endings of both active and mediopassive voices, such as սիրեմ 'I love' and բերեմ 'I carry'.
| -Vց, A | -Vց, MP | root, A | root, MP | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| սիրեմ | սիրիմ | բերեմ | բերիմ | |||||
| 'love' | 'be loved' | 'carry' | 'be carried' | |||||
| 1 Sg. | սիրեցի | սիրեցայ | բերի | բերայ | ||||
| 2 | սիրեցեր | սիրեցար | բերեր | բերար | ||||
| 3 | սիրեաց | սիրեցաւ | եբեր | բերաւ | ||||
| 1 Pl. | սիրեցաք | սիրեցաք | բերաք | բերաք | ||||
| 2 | սիրեցէք, սիրեցիք | սիրեցայք | բերէք, բերիք | բերայք | ||||
| 3 | սիրեցին | սիրեցան | բերին | բերան |
Note that forms which would otherwise be monosyllabic take an augment ե, hence եբեր. The augment does not appear when the monosyllable begins with a vowel, e.g. 3 Sg. A ած from the verb ածեմ 'I lead'. In the post-classical period, such forms also gained an augment: էած. Note also the alternation եա/ե, with եա showing in positions where the syllable carries stress, hence սիրեաց. In general, when the stem is subject to vowel alternation, the full grade is displayed in the 3rd Sg.; examples are the following.
| 1st Sg. | 2nd Sg. | 3rd Sg. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| կլ-ի 'I swallowed' | կլ-եր | եկուլ | ||||
| լց-ի 'I filled' | լց-եր | ելից | ||||
| իջ-ի 'I came down' | իջ-եր | էջ | ||||
| անիծ-ի 'I cursed' | անիծ-եր | անէծ | ||||
| լուծ-ի 'I loosened' | լուծ-եր | ելոյծ | ||||
| փախուց-ի 'I chased' | փախուց-եր | փախոյց | ||||
| կեց-ի 'I lived' | կեց-եր | եկեաց | ||||
| ատեց-ի 'I hated' | ատեց-եր | ատեաց |
The last two forms are not examples of the -(V)ց aorist suffix, but rather of regular vowel alternation in the verbal root itself: present indicative կեամ, ատեամ.
Root aorists in -եայ are built on ի-stems, e.g. փախեայ 'I fled' < *փախի-այ and սարտեայ 'I startled' < *սարտի-այ. Such aorists at times have modified endings in other portions of the aorist system.
8.2 The Aorist Subjunctive
The marker of the aorist subjunctive is -ից-, becoming -յց- after ա. In unstressed syllables, the ի drops. Only the second person plural breaks this pattern, showing -ջիք instead. Thus the aorist subjunctive endings are as follows.
| A | MP | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 Sg. | -ից | -այց | ||
| 2 | -ցես | -ցիս, -ցես | ||
| 3 | -ցէ | -ցի, -ցէ | ||
| 1 Pl. | -ցուք | -ցուք | ||
| 2 | -ջիք | -ջիք | ||
| 3 | -ցեն | -ցին, -ցեն |
These endings are added to the aorist stem. Note that extended polysyllabic aorist stems change ց to ս before a consonant. Thus we have the following example paradigms.
| root, A | -Vց, A | root, MP | -Vց, MP | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| արգելում | որսամ | նստիմ | հայիմ | |||||
| 'hinder' | 'hunt' | 'sit' | 'look' | |||||
| 1 Sg. | արգելից | որսացից | նստայց | հայեցայց | ||||
| 2 | արգելցես | որսեսցես | նստցիս | հայեսցիս | ||||
| 3 | արգելցէ | որսասցէ | նստցի | հայեսցի | ||||
| 1 Pl. | արգելցուք | որսասցուք | նստցուք | հայեսցուք | ||||
| 2 | արգելջիք | որսասջիք | նստջիք | հայեսջիք | ||||
| 3 | արգելցեն | որսասցեն | նստցին | հայեսցին |
Monosyllabic stems do not display such dissimilation, e.g. լացից, լացցես, etc.
The alternate mediopassive endings are found for some anomalous verbs and for ի-stem aorists. For example, փախեայ 'I fled' shows subjunctive forms փախեայց, փախիցես, փախիցէ, 3rd Pl. փախիցեն.
8.3 The Aorist Imperative
The aorist imperative has only second person forms. The endings are as follows.
| A | MP | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 Sg. | - | -իր, - | ||
| 2 Pl. | -էք, -իք | -արուք, -այք |
Note that the second person plural forms are the same as those of the aorist indicative. Sample paradigms are given for the verbs բերեմ 'I carry' and սիրեմ 'I love'.
| A | MP | A | MP | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| բերեմ | սիրեմ | |||||||||
| 'carry' | 'love' | |||||||||
| 2 Sg. | բեր | բերիր, բեր | սիրեա | սիրեաց | ||||||
| 2 Pl. | բերէք, բերիք | բերարուք | սիրեցէք, սիրեցիք | սիրեցարուք |
The mediopassive ending -իր always occurs in verbs with extended present stems:
| Present | Aorist | Imper. Sg. | Imper. Pl. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| հեծանիմ 'I ride' | հեծայ | հեծիր | հեծարուք | |||||
| դառնամ 'I turn' | դարձայ | դարձիր | դարձարուք | |||||
| փախչիմ 'I flee' | փախեայ | փախիր | փախերուք | |||||
| զգենում 'I dress' | զգեցայ | զգեցիր | զգեցարուք |
and occasionally in verbs with present in -անամ, aorist -ացայ:
| Present | Aorist | Imper. Sg. | Imper. Pl. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| իմանամ 'I understand' | իմացայ | իմացիր, իմա | իմացարուք | |||||
| մոռանամ 'I forget' | մոռացայ | մոռացիր, մոռա | մոռացարուք |
Otherwise, the second person singular is generally identical to the bare aorist stem. Polysyllabic aorists in -ց-, however, have the following tendencies:
(a) -աց reduces to -ա:
| Present | Aorist | Imper. Sg. | Imper. Pl. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ասեմ 'I say' | ասացի | ասա | ասացէք | |||||
| հաւատամ 'I believe' | հաւատացի | հաւատա | հաւատացէք | |||||
| յուսամ 'I hope' | յուսացայ | յուսա | յուսացարուք |
(b) -եց changes to -եա in the active, to -եաց in the mediopassive:
| Present | Aorist | Imper. Sg. | Imper. Pl. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| գրեմ 'I write' | գրեցի | գրեա | գրեցէք | |||||
| հայիմ 'I look' | հայեցայ | հայեաց | հայեցարուք |
Monosyllabic stems in -ց do not undergo such changes:
| Present | Aorist | Imper. Sg. | Imper. Pl. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| լամ 'I cry' | լացի | լաց | լացէք | |||||
| կեամ 'I live' | կեցի | կեաց | կեցէք | |||||
| բանամ 'I open' | բացի | բաց | բացէք | |||||
| լնում 'I fill' | լցի | լից | լցէք |
Root aorist stems remain unaltered:
| Present | Aorist | Imper. Sg. | Imper. Pl. | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| արգելում 'I hinder' | արգելի | արգել | արգելէք | |||||||
| հանեմ | 'I draw' | հանի | հան | հանէք | ||||||
| բառնամ 'I lift' | բարձի | բարձ | բարձէք | |||||||
| արկանեմ 'I throw' | արկի | արկ | արկէք | |||||||
| նստիմ 'I sit' | նստայ | նիստ | նստարուք |
Also noteworthy are the second person endings -ջիր (Sg.) and -ջիք added to aorist stems to form the so-called cohortative. These parallel the present endings -իջիր and -իջիք added to -եմ and -իմ presents. The cohortative forms play a role essentially like an imperative. The verb արգելում 'I hinder' illustrates the forms.
| Imperative | Cohortative | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 Sg. | արգել | արգելջիր | ||
| 2 Pl. | արգելէք | արգելջիք |
The difference is perhaps akin to that of Latin imperative as against second person subjunctive: prohibe (imp.) 'hinder!' vs. prohibeas (coh.) 'let you hinder'.
9 Adverbs
There are some general tendencies in the formation of adverbs in Classical Armenian. Adverbs generally derive from two souces: (1) frozen use of oblique cases; (2) special endings. The most common formations are discussed below.
Adverbs of Mode are often formed from
- the instrumental case of nouns or adjectives: դիւր 'easy' yields the adverb դիւրաւ 'easily'; բուն 'nature' yields բնաւ 'by nature; absolutely'. There is a particular instrumental ending -եւ frozen in its adverbial function: արդար 'just, righteous' yields արդարեւ 'really'; ամեն-այն 'all, every' yields ամենեւին 'wholly'.
- the accusative of adjectives: յանկարծ 'unexpectedly'; ուղիղ 'directly'.
- the ablative with the preposition ի: յանպատրաստից 'suddenly', from ի and անպատրաստ 'not ready'.
- the suffix -պէս, denoting 'type, way', appended to nouns and adjectives: փոյթ 'haste' yields փութապէս 'quickly'; դառն 'bitter' yields դառնապէս 'bitterly'; այս 'this' yields այսպէս 'in this way'; ՞որ 'what?' yields ՞որպէս 'how?'. Note the form պէսպէս 'variously'.
- the suffix -աբար with the sense 'in the habit of, in the manner of': գազանաբար 'in the manner of a beast, wildly' comes from գազան 'wild beast'; արիաբար 'valiantly' comes from արի 'brave, valiant'.
- the suffixes -արէն or -երէն used for languages: յունարէն 'in Greek' from յոյն 'Greek'; հայերէն 'in Armenian' from հայ 'Armenian'; եբրայեցերէն 'in Hebrew' from եբրայեցի 'Hebrew'.
Adverbs of Time are often derived from frozen case forms. Examples are այսաւր 'today', the accusative of այս աւր 'this day'; այժմ 'now', accusative of այս ժամ 'this time'; վաղիւ (also ի վաղիւ or ի վաղիւ անդր) 'tomorrow', instrumental of վաղ 'soon'; երեկ 'yesterday', locative of երեկ 'evening'; այսու հետեւ 'from now onward; consequently', instrumental of այս հետ 'this track, this trail'; որով հետեւ 'since; because', instrumental of որ հետ 'which track'.
Adverbs of Place generally have the same threefold distinction as the demonstratives (-ս, -դ, -ն), and answer to questions of յ՞ո 'to where?', ՞ուր 'where?', and ուստ՞ի 'from where?'. The following table summarizes the distinction.
| here | there | over there | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| to | այսր | այդր | անդր | |||
| at | աստ | այդր | անդ | |||
| from | աստի, աստուստ | այտի | անտի, անդուստ |
There are emphatic forms with the ending -էն: աստէն, այդրէն, անդէն 'in the same place'.
One may construct a similar table based upon the distinction 'in', 'out', 'above'.
| inside | outside | above | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| to | ի ներքս | արտաքս | ի վեր | |||
| at | ի ներքոյ | արտաքոյ | ի veroy, i վերայ | |||
| from | ի ներքուստ | արտաքուստ | ի վերուստ |
The phrase ի վայր 'down', from the word վայր 'field', is often used in opposition to ի վեր 'above'.
10 Particles
Classical Armenian makes use of several particles. The most common are listed below for convenience.
ահա 'lo! behold!'. Interjection.
այլ 'but, rather', typically contrasting opposites, e.g. ոչ եկի լուծանել , այլ լնուլ 'I have not come to destroy, but to fulfil'. The form is A Sg. of այլ 'other, another'.
ապա 'then, afterwards, later', marking the sequence of events. ապա (ուրեմն) 'therefore' may signify logical conclusion, e.g. ապա ուրեմն ազատ են որդիքն 'therefore the sons are free'. ապա 'or' may signify the second of two alternatives. ապա 'then' may mark the apodosis ('then'-clause) of a conditional statement.
արդ 'now; so, then'. The basic meaning is 'now', but may be used in the continuation of a thought.
բայց 'except, but'. The basic sense is 'except': ոչ ոք ի նոցանէ կորեաւ բայց որդին կորստեան 'no one among them perished, save the son of ruin'. բայց 'but' may be used in a limiting sense: հոգիս յաւժար է բայց մարմինս տկար 'the spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak'.
եւ 'also, too, and'. Conjunction linking words or clauses. Also found in extended form եւս 'also, still, moreover, besides'.
զի 'that, because' with indicative verb, introducing causal statements; 'so that, so as to' with verbs in the subjunctive, introducing result clauses. The form զ-ի is A Sg. of the relative-interrogative pronoun. It is often closely allied with other adverbs: քանզի 'because'; վասն զի 'since'; որպէս զի 'so that', with subjunctive; մինչ զի 'until, up to'; փոխանակ զի 'in place of'.
թե, եթե '(quote)', introducing direct speech or a direct question; 'whether, whether...or' introducing dependent or indirect questions, or twofold questions; 'that' with subjunctive, introducing result clauses; 'if' with indicative or subjunctive verb, introducing different types of conditional statements. This particle has a very broad range, with many nuances beyond those mentioned here.
թեպէտ 'although'. It may be followed by a verb in the indicative or subjunctive, according to sense.
իբր, իբրեւ 'like, as', used for comparison with զ and the accusative of the object of comparison, e.g. լինիցիք իբրեւ զաստյածս 'you will be as gods'; 'about, approximately' used in apposition with numbers; 'as, as soon as, while, after' with temporal clauses.
իսկ 'truly, indeed, but'. իսկ եւ իսկ is used in the sense of 'immediately': եւ իսկ եւ իսկ ետես ի տեսլեանն 'and immediately he saw in the dream'.
կամ 'or', կամ...կամ 'either...or'. Disjunctive particle. Originally meaning 'as one wants, as you like, as you will'.
մինչ, մինչեւ 'until, up to, as far as, as, during, while, as long as' with finite verb or infinitive, introducing temporal or consecutive statements. It may also be used with ի before nouns. The collocation մինչ չեւ is used in the sense 'before'. մինչ դեռ is used in the sense 'while, as'.
նա 'then'. One also finds նա եւ 'and also'.
սակայն 'but, however', often used in the sense 'under such conditions'.
քան 'than'. Comparative particle, used with զ and the accusative of the object of comparison: սիրեցին մարդիկ զխաւար առաւել քան զլոյս 'the men loved the shadow more than the light'; հզաւրագոյն քան զնա 'someone stronger than he'.
