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46 Primary stems in long vowels.

46.1 Primary stems in -ī and -ū.

The declension of secondary feminine stems in -ī was given in Lesson 4 (17.3). There are three important monosyllabic feminine abstract nouns that follow the primary -ī declension: dhī́ 'thought', bhī́ 'respect, fear' and śrī́ 'splendour, glory'. The usual endings are given below, as they would be if made from from dhī́ 'thought'. When the case endings begin with a vowel -ī- changes to -iy-. Dual forms (nominative/accusative dhiyā́, instrumental dhībhyā́m, gen/loc dhiyós) are rare.

		Singular		Plural
Nom		dhī́s		dhíyas
Acc		dhíyam		dhíyas
Ins		dhiyā́		dhībhís
Dat		dhiyé		dhībhyás
Gen		dhiyás		dhīnā́m
Loc				dhīṣú

A number of compounds follow this declension, like the masculine adjectives su-dhī́ 'of good thought' and brahma-prī́ 'delighting in prayer'.

There are in addition some uncompounded polysyllabic nouns which belong to this declension, and are always accented on the -ī- or -iy- of the suffix, although in the ancient texts -iy- is consistently changed to y with displacement of the accent. Of this group nadī́ (feminine) 'stream' is of frequent occurrence: it appeared in the Lesson 3 text in the accusative plural nadyàs (correctly nadíyas) and genitive plural nadī́nām, again in examples 296 and 258 in these two forms, and in example 157 in the nominative plural nadyàs, (nadíyas).

The endings of the primary -ū stems are parallel to those of the primary -ī stems. When the case ending begins with a vowel -ū- changes to -uv-. Many of the words that follow this declension are adjectival compounds, like nominative singular masculine pari-bhū́s 'being around, encompassing' in the Lesson 2 text, and mayo-bhū́ 'bringing happiness', which occurs in the instrumental singular neuter mayobhúvā in the Lesson 8 text.

Compounds formed with these primary endings show a tendency to be transferred to more common declensions. The -ī or -ū regularly appears in shortened form, the compound then following the declension given in section 3 of Lesson 1. An example of this, the alternative adjective mayobhú, occurs in example 325, in the accusative singular neuter mayobhú, in section 47.3 of this lesson.

• puró agnī́ṃ dhiyā́ dadhe (1, 139, 1) 'with thought I place Agni first' [307]
• pátir vacasyate dhiyáḥ (IX, 99, 6) 'the lord of thought speaks fluently' (the denominative verb vacasy-, from vácas) [308]
• dhīnā́m antáḥ [antár] sabardúghaḥ, hinvānó mā́nuṣā yugā́ (IX, 12, 7) 'producing clarity of thoughts within, encouraging the generations of men' (The first element of the compound sabar-dúgha 'producing clarity' is related to Greek σαφής 'clear' and σοφός 'wise', Latin sapor 'savour, taste' and sapiens 'judicious') [309]
• té anyā́m-anyāṃ nadyàṃ saniṣṇata (I, 131, 5) 'they win (an intensive form of √san, sanóti 'win') of you (Indra) stream after stream' (nadíyam) [310]
• tád víśvam abhibhū́r [abhibhū́s] asi (VIII, 89, 6) 'you (Indra) surpass all that' [311]
• agníṃ juhvā̀ vacasyā́, madhupŕ̥caṃ dhanasā́ [dhanasā́s] johavīmi (II, 10, 6) 'With fluent tongue, winning wealth, I entreat Agni, shedding sweetness' (properly juhúvā, from juhū́ (f) 'tongue, call'; the adjective is formed from the denominative verb vacasy- in example 308 above)' [312]

46.2 Primary stems in -ā.

Secondary stems in -ā, which form the feminine of masculine/neuter nouns and adjectives in -a as described in section 6 of Lesson 2, are very common. There are in addition a few primary -ā stems, many of which occur as compounds, like the masculine adjectives dhana-sā́ 'winning wealth' in the last example above, vrata-pā́ 'protecting holy law' in example 243, and purā-jā́ 'born aforetime' in the Lesson 6 text. The forms that are found, if made from the monosyllable jā́ 'child' (m/f), are given below. All oblique cases are rare, and only the nominative/accusative/vocative dual forms, jā́ or jaú, occur.

		Singular		Plural
Nom		jā́s		jā́s
Acc		jā́m		jā́s
Ins		jā́		jā́bhis
Dat		jé		jā́bhyas
Gen		jás
Loc				jā́su
Voc		jā́s

As with the stems in -ī and -ū, there is a tendency for compounds to be transferred to the secondary declension. The compound prajā́ 'creature', for example, has been assimilated to the secondary -ā declension throughout, and indeed was used to illustrate that declension in Lesson 2. As a result the primary -ā stems are uncommon, and have on occasion been differently assigned: the feminine rā́ 'gift', for example, which appears only in the accusative rā́m in X, 111, 7, the first example below, has been taken to be an irregular form of rayí, and in the concluding verse of X, 127, the only poem in the Rigveda addressed to dawn's sister, the goddess of night, I follow Professor Lanman (Noun-inflection, JAOS vol. x, 1880, p. 443) in taking gā́s to be from a monosyllabic gā́ 'singer', rather than the accusative plural 'cows' (example 316 below). I have also interpreted the word form in this way at its occurrence in VII, 36,1 quoted in the introduction to this lesson.

• sácanta yád uṣásaḥ sū́ryeṇa, citrā́m asya ketávo rā́m avindan (X, 111, 7) 'when the dawns accompanied (imperfect without augment; √sac here takes the instrumental) the sun, his rays discovered a bright gift' [313]
• ásuṃ yá īyúr avr̥kā́ r̥tajñā́s, té no avantu pitáro háveṣu (X, 15, 1) 'may those who have left life, not harming, knowing Truth (r̥ta-jñā́, from √jñā 'know'), the fathers, may they bring help at our invocations' (quoted in the introduction to Lesson 6) [314]
• ubhé vā́cau vadati sāmagā́ [sāmagā́s] iva, gāyatráṃ ca traíṣṭubhaṃ cā́nu rājati (II, 43, 1) 'he speaks both voices, like a harmony (sā́man)-singer; he commands both sacred song and triple praise' (see example 290 for the last verse of this poem) [315]
• úpa te gā́ ivā́karaṃ [gā́s iva ā́ akaram], vr̥ṇīṣvá duhitar divaḥ, rā́tri stómaṃ na jigyúṣe (X, 127, 8) 'I have offered up to you, daughter of heaven, like a singer; accept, O Night, as it were a song of praise to the victor' [316] (see example 242 for verse 5)

47 Aorist System: participles and moods.

The examples below are given to illustrate the forms. Participles and moods made from the reduplicating or sigmatic aorists are clearly aorist forms; when made from the simple aorist the Present System forms are given in parentheses for comparison.

47.1 Aorist participles.

• abhí yáṃ devī́ áditir gr̥ṇā́ti, saváṃ devásya savitúr juṣāṇā́ (VII, 38, 4) 'to whom goddess Aditi sings, enjoying the encouragement of divine Savitar' (simple aorist middle participle from √juṣ, juṣáte; compare juṣámāṇā) [317]
• sá yó ví ásthād abhí dákṣad [dákṣat] urvī́m, paśúr ná eti svayúr ágopāḥ (II, 4, 7) 'he (fire), who has spread out, burning up the broad earth, like a beast without a herdsman he goes at will' (sigmatic aorist active participle from √dah, dáhati 'burn') [318]

47.2 The aorist imperative.

The first two examples are simple aorist imperative forms without connecting -a-, from verbs whose forms in the Present System belong to the thematic (-a-) conjugation. As the endings are added directly to the root in the Aorist System, they are those of the athematic conjugation (compare the aorist middle participle juṣāṇá in example 317 above).

• devébhir devi adite, áriṣṭabharman ā́ gahi (Lesson 5 text) 'with gods, O goddess Aditi, unfailing in support, come hither' (from √gam, gáchati; compare gacha) [319]
• utā́vamásya puruhūta bodhi (Lesson 6 text) 'and, O much invoked, observe the most recent one' (from √budh, bódhati; compare bodha) [320]
• devó-devaḥ suhávo bhūtu máhyam (Lesson 8 text) 'may god after god be easily invoked for me' (simple aorist imperative from √bhū, bhávati; compare bhavatu) [321]
• mánma śrudhi návīyasaḥ (I, 131, 6) 'listen to the thought of a newer one' (simple aorist imperative from √śru, śr̥ṇóti; compare śr̥ṇuhi, śr̥ṇudhi) [322] (=189)
• aviṣṭáṃ dhíyo jigr̥tám púraṃdhīḥ (IV, 50, 11) 'favour (dual) thoughts, waken abundance' (sigmatic aorist imperative from √av, ávati 'favour', and reduplicating aorist imperative from √gr̥ 'wake') [323]

47.3 The aorist subjunctive.

The sigmatic aorist is regularly used to make subjunctive forms.

• sá naḥ parṣad [parṣat] áti durgā́ṇi víśvā, nāvéva síndhuṃ duritā́ti agníḥ (I, 99, 1) 'so will Agni bear us over all hard ways and dangers, as with a boat over a river' (sigmatic aorist subjunctive, from √pr̥, píparti 'pass' with preverb áti) [324] (=124)
• vā́ta ā́ vātu bheṣajáṃ, śambhú mayobhú no hr̥dé, prá ṇa ā́yūṃṣi tāriṣat (X, 186, 1 ) 'may the wind blow healing hither, kind, bringing happiness to us in the heart, it will prolong our lives' (sigmatic aorist subjunctive, from √tr̥̄, tiráti 'cross' with preverb prá) [325]
• ápād itá [itás] úd u naś citrátamo, mahī́m bharṣad [bharṣat] dyumátīm índrahūtim (VI, 38, 1) 'the brightest one has drunk from here, now he will carry up our great, splendid appeal to Indra (Indra-call)' (sigmatic aorist subjunctive, from √bhr̥, bhárati 'bring, bear' with preverb út) [326]
• utá syā́ no dívā matír, áditir ūtyā́ gamat (Lesson 5 text) 'and that our thought by day, Aditi will come with help' (simple aorist subjunctive from √gam, gáchati; compare gachāt) [327]

47.4 The aorist optative.

A rare form of the aorist optative, the precative, adds an -s- before the endings, which when simply consonantal are then lost, as explained in section 18. An example occurred in the Lesson 8 text, repeated below (example 330).

• távéd uṣo vyúṣi sū́ryasya ca, sám bhakténa gamemahi (Lesson 4 text) 'at your own brightening, O dawn, and the sun's, may we partake of our share' (simple aorist optative of √gam, gáchati; compare gáchemahi) [328]
• táṃ no devā́ ánu maṃsīrata krátum (Lesson 7 text) 'may the gods commend that wisdom of ours' (sigmatic aorist optative of √man, mányate with preverb ánu) [329]
• prá suṣṭutí stanáyantaṃ ruvántam, iḷás pátiṃ jaritar nūnám aśyāḥ (Lesson 8 text) 'may a fine hymn of praise now reach (aśyās, = aśyās-t) the roaring thunder-maker, lord of refreshment, O singer' (precative of √aṃś, aśnóti 'reach') [330]

48 The passive.

The passive is formed with the suffix -yá-, and the endings of the middle voice. The middle voice, without the suffix, can also be used with passive sense, as in the seventh verse of the lesson text, ví tirate, and the last two examples below.

• idám pitré marútām ucyate vácaḥ (I, 114, 6) 'this speech is addressed to the father of the Maruts' (from √vac 'speak') [331] (=187)
• svā́diṣṭhā dhītír ucáthāya śasyate (I, 110, 1) 'the sweetest thought is sung for praise' (from √śaṃs 'sing praise') [332] (=193)
• vibhrā́jamāna uṣásām upásthād, rebhaír úd eti anumadyámānaḥ (VII, 63, 3) 'refulgent, from the lap of dawns (the sun) rises, delighted in by the singers' (passive participle from √mad 'delight in' with preverb ánu) [333]
• evá agnír gótamebhir r̥tā́vā, víprebhir astoṣṭa jātávedāḥ (I, 77, 5) 'so Agni, possessed of Truth, knowing created things, has been praised by the poets, the Gotamas' (sigmatic aorist middle of √stu 'praise') [334]
• ātmā́ devā́nām bhúvanasya gárbha, yathāvaśáṃ carati devá eṣáḥ, ghóṣā íd asya śr̥ṇvire ná rūpám (X, 168, 4) 'the breath of the gods, the germ of existence, this god goes as he wills, his sounds are heard but his form is not (seen)' (from √śru 'hear', and supplying dadr̥śe from √dr̥ś 'see') [335] (=259)

48.1 The aorist passive.

This passive is found only in the 3rd person singular. It is formed with the augment, and the suffix -i is added to the verbal root, which is usually strengthened. An example occurred at the beginning of the Lesson 4 text: práty u adarśi āyatī́, uchántī duhitā́ diváḥ 'now she has been seen (a-darś-i, from √dr̥ś 'see, appear'), approaching, shining, the daughter of heaven'. The aorist passive is characteristic of poems of early date.

• ásarji vāṃ sthávirā vedhasā gī́ḥ (I, 181, 7) 'a steadfast song has been sent (from √sr̥j) to you, honourable pair' [336]
• ádhāyi agnír mā́nuṣīṣu vikṣú (III, 5, 3) 'fire has been placed (from √dhā) among settlements of men' (the adjective mā́nuṣī, feminine of mā́nuṣa in example 309 above) [337]
• mátsi ápāyi te máhaḥ (I, 175, 1) 'rejoice (Indra), your greatness has been drunk (from √pā, píbati 'drink')' (for the last verse of this poem, concluding the image, see example 279: '... you were like happiness, like water to a thirsty man') [338]
• áceti ketúr uṣásaḥ purástāt 'the sign of dawn has been seen (from √cit) up ahead' (VII, 67, 2) [339]
• uṣā́ [uṣā́s] adarśi raśmíbhir vyàktā 'dawn has come into view, made bright with rays' (VII, 77, 3) [340]
• víśvaṃ jīváṃ támaso nír amoci, máhi jyótiḥ pitŕ̥bhir dattám ā́gāt (X, 107, 1) 'all life has been released (from √muc 'make free' with preverb nís 'out') from darkness, the great light given by the fathers has come' [341]
• iyáṃ vām asyá mánmana, índrāgnī pūrvyástutiḥ, abhrā́d vr̥ṣṭír ivājani [iva ajani] (VII, 94, 1) 'this praise of old has been produced (from √jan) for you from this one's thought, O Indra and Agni, like rain from the storm-cloud' [342]

49 Primary nominal formation.

The formation of nominal (noun and adjective) stems from verbs in Sanskrit is more regular and clear than in any other Indo-European language. The ancient grammarians therefore set up a body of verbal roots, describing the regular processes by which these roots become nouns and adjectives by means of the addition of suffixes.

The table below gives a sample of three verbal roots, √kr̥ 'do', √jan 'produce', and √man 'think', and the nouns and adjectives that they form by means of four common suffixes: -ana, -as, -tu and -man. The position of the accent often differentiates meaning: for example, kar-aṇá 'active' exists alongside root-accented kár-aṇa 'deed'. The form that the root takes can vary depending on the suffix, as √kr̥ demonstrates: *kr̥-aṇá and *kŕ̥-as are not possible word forms.

		√kr̥ 'do'		√jan 'produce'		√man 'think'
-ana		kar-aṇá 'active'		ján-ana 'producer'		man-ána 'thoughtful'
-as		kár-as 'deed'		ján-as 'race'		mán-as 'understanding'
-tu		krá-tu 'power'		jan-tú 'creature'		mán-tu 'arbiter'
-man		kár-man 'deed'		ján-man 'birth'		mán-man 'thought'

Further examples of nouns and adjectives formed with these suffixes, together with four more primary suffixes, are given below.

-ana		cáraṇa from √car 'move', bhúvana from √bhū 'be', vakṣáṇa from √vakṣ 'grow', vacaná from √vac 'speak', sacaná from √sac 'accompany', sádana from √sad 'sit', hávana from √hū 'call upon'
-as		ávas from √av 'favour', uṣás from √vas 'shine', cákṣas from √cakṣ 'see', páyas from √pī 'swell with plenty', vácas from √vac, védas both from √vid 'find' and √vid 'know', vedhás from √vidh 'honour', śrávas from √śru 'hear', sádas from √sad
-tu		aktú from √añj 'make bright', gātú both from √gā 'go' and √gā 'sing'
-man		dā́man from √dā 'give', dhárman from √dhr̥ 'hold firm', dhā́man from √dhā 'place', pátman from √pat 'fly', vídman from √vid 'know', sádman from √sad
-ani		caráṇi from √car, vakṣáṇi from √vakṣ
-tra		mántra from √man, vr̥trá from √vr̥ 'hinder'; with connecting vowel gāyatrá from √gā 'sing', carítra from √car, janítra from √jan
-tha		with connecting vowel ucátha from √vac, carátha from √car, vakṣátha from √vakṣ, vidátha from √vid, sacátha from √sac, stanátha from √stan 'thunder', várūtha from √vr̥ 'protect'
-ra		usrá from √vas 'shine'; with connecting vowel patará from √pat, madirá from √mad 'be pleased'

The addition of secondary suffixes to these nominal stems to form derivative nouns and adjectives was treated in section 17 of Lesson 4 ('Secondary nominal formation'). Among the examples given were the secondary suffixes -a, -ya (-iya), -vant and -mant. Some derivatives made with these secondary suffixes, from nouns given above, are manasá from mánas; śravasíya from śrávas, vidathíya from vidátha, sacathíya from sacátha, (all given with suffixal -yà in the ancient texts) and usríya from usrá; mánasvant from mánas and dā́manvant from dā́man; krátumant from krátu and gātumánt from gātú.

The Lesson 10 text is remarkable for its wealth of adjectives and abstract feminine nouns formed with the primary suffix -ti. The passage contains nine examples: sa-rā-tí 'giving together' from √rā 'grant' and úpa-ṣṭu-ti 'paean' from √stu 'praise' both occur twice, together with bhak-tí 'share' from √bhaj 'share', su-pra-ṇī́-ti 'guiding safely' from √nī 'lead', abhí-ṣ-ti 'ready help' from √as 'be', vā́ja-sā-ti 'strength-winning' from san 'win', and dhūr-tí 'injury' from √dhvr̥ 'injure'.

50 The indological tradition: interpretation of verbal roots and their derivatives in the Rigveda.

50.1 Abstract, not concrete: the example of √grabh.

In the translations of indology the Rigveda often appears an unsophisticated and bizarre text because of the tradition of interpreting verbal roots, together with their nominal derivatives, in a primarily concrete or literal sense. Verbal meaning in the Rigveda is however regularly abstract and metaphorical -- the use of √pā 'drink' in I, 175, quoted in example 338 above, is an instance of this: 'rejoice (Indra), your greatness has been drunk... you were like happiness, like water to a thirsty man'. A few illustrations of the abstract use of the verb √grabh, gr̥bhṇā́ti 'take (not necessarily with the hand)' are given below.

• svéneva [svéna iva] dhī́ro mánasā yád ágrabhīt (I, 145, 2) 'which the wise man has grasped with his own understanding, so to speak' [343]
• śréyāṃsaṃ dákṣam mánasā jagr̥bhyāt (X, 31, 2) 'let him acquire finer virtue with his mind' [344]
• práti me stómam áditir jagr̥bhyāt, sūnúṃ ná mātā́ hŕ̥dyaṃ suśévam (V, 42, 2) 'may Aditi welcome my praise, like a mother a beloved son dear to her heart' (with preverb práti) [345] (=283)
• devó bhuvan [bhuvat] návedā ma r̥tā́nāṃ, námo jagr̥bhvā́m̐ [jagr̥bhvā́n] abhí yáj jújoṣat (IV, 23, 4) 'may the god be cognizant (návedas) of my Truths, having accepted (perfect active participle) the honour that he enjoys' [346]

50.2 Later specialization of meaning: the example of √pī.

Indologists call the language of the Rigveda 'Vedic', a word that is also used to describe the language of later texts which owe their existence to the Rigveda and the need to understand it (see the Series Introduction). The influence of these later texts leads to the continuing 'reading back' of interpretations that are later into Rigvedic contexts. A typical example is √pī, pínvate 'swell with plenty, yield abundantly' and its primary derivative páyas 'fruitfulness, plenty'. In the later texts the abstract sense was lost, and the root acquired the specific meaning 'swell with milk'. Despite the varied contexts in which páyas occurs in the Rigveda -- the word is ascribed to rivers, plants and speech for instance (see the first verse of the Lesson 3 text, and examples 88, 98, and 300, and 351 below) -- it continues to be consistently translated 'milk' by indologists, and the rivers in the Lesson 3 text, for example, are understood to be pictured as cows.

• nū́ ṣṭutá indra nū́ gr̥ṇāná, íṣaṃ jaritré nadyò ná pīpeḥ (IV, 16, 21) 'now praised, now lauded, Indra, yield refreshment abundantly for the singer, like streams' [347] (=296)
• evá agnír gótamebhir r̥tā́vā, víprebhir astoṣṭa jātávedāḥ, sá eṣu dyumnám pīpayat sá vā́jam (I, 77, 5) 'so Agni, possessed of Truth, knowing created things, has been praised by the poets, the Gotamas; so will he yield glory and strength abundantly among them' [348] (first two lines = 334)
• índra yás te návīyasīṃ, gíram mandrā́m ájījanat, cikitvínmanasaṃ dhíyam, pratnā́m r̥tásya pipyúṣīm (VIII, 95, 5) 'who for you, Indra, has produced a newer, pleasing song, a perceptive thought, ancient, productive of Truth' (feminine perfect active participle) [349]
• prá vā́tā vā́nti patáyanti vidyúta, úd óṣadhīr jíhate pínvate svàḥ (V, 83, 4) 'the winds blow forth, the lightnings fall; the plants shoot up, heaven yields abundance' (with preverb út, quoted in the introduction to Lesson 8) [350]
• sárasvatī saptáthī síndhumātā, yā́ḥ suṣváyanta sudúghāḥ sudhārā́, abhí svéna páyasā pī́pyānāḥ (VII, 36, 6) 'may they be fertile -- the seventh one Sarasvati, mother of the rivers -- those richly giving forth, flowing well, yielding abundantly with their own plenty (páyas)' [351]

In the last example the compound su-dúgha 'richly giving forth', describing the rivers, is formed from a primary nominal derivative of a verb that is similar in meaning to √pī, √duh 'produce, give forth' with prefix su-. The same derivative, dúgha, occurred at the end of the compound sabar-dúgha in example 309 earlier in this lesson: dhīnā́m antáḥ sabardúghaḥ, hinvānó mā́nuṣā yugā́ (IX, 12, 7) 'producing clarity of thoughts within, encouraging the generations of men'. Like √pī, √duh later became restricted in meaning to the production of milk, so that IX, 12, 7, when quoted in a later text, is 'corrected': the genitive plural dhī́nām 'of thoughts' is changed to the accusative singular dhenā́m 'stream of milk', and the ending of the adjective changed to agree with the new noun (SV II,5,1,4,7). In the same way at IX, 108, 8, an Archaic poem, the accusative adjective payo-vŕ̥dham 'plentiful' is changed to payo-dúham (SV II,6,2,6,2). The sophistication and abstraction of the language of the Rigveda was not understood by the authors of the later Vedic texts, and the continuing use of the word 'Vedic' to include the language of the Rigveda perpetuates important mistranslations in these early poems.

50.3 The assumption of ritual meaning: the example of √añj.

Many words continue to be defined in dictionaries in ways that belong to later texts devoted to the description of ritual practice. A significant example of this is the verb √añj, anákti, to which Monier-Williams gives the primary sense for the Rigveda "to apply an ointment or pigment, smear with oil, anoint", and which Macdonell translates simply as 'anoint'. Most recently (1986) the verb is defined by Manfred Mayrhofer in his dictionary of early Sanskrit "salben, bestreichen, beschmieren", 'anoint, smear with oil'. This later specialization of sense occasions many strange translations of Rigvedic passages, and footnotes attempting to justify them. Geldner in the 1920s commented on his translation of example 356 below in a footnote "Das Loblied ist eine Salbe"; Renou in the 1960s translated example 353 "je vais lancer-avec-onction la parole que voici"; and the most recent translator of the Rigveda, Tatiana Elizarenkova (1999) notes to bhānúm añjate in the first example 'they anoint themselves with light as ointment', and to aktó vácobhis in example 359 'anointed with sacrificial butter and praised with words'. The later ritual interpretation also causes perplexity about one of the verb's primary derivatives, aktú 'twilight ray'. The meaning of √añj in the Rigveda, both with and without preverbs -- see examples 352, 353, 358 and 359 -- is abstract and complex, lying in the region 'cause to appear, reveal, make bright'.

• etā́ u tyā́ uṣásaḥ ketúm akrata, pū́rve árdhe rájaso bhānúm añjate (I, 92, 1) 'now these dawns have shone out, in the eastern half of the dark region they cause brightness to appear' (present middle) [352]
• prá śárdhāya mā́rutāya svábhānava, imā́ṃ vā́cam anajā parvatacyúte (V, 54, 1) 'for the Maruts' troop, self-luminous, moving mountains, I shall reveal this speech' (subjunctive) [353]
• purogā́ [purogā́s] agnír devā́nāṃ, gāyatréṇa sám ajyate (I, 188, 11) 'Agni, herald of the gods, is made bright with sacred song' (passive, with preverb sám) [354]
• uṣā́ adarśi raśmíbhir vyàktā 'dawn has come into view, made bright with rays' (past participle, with preverb ví) (VII, 77, 3) [355] (=340)
• índrāya arkáṃ juhvā̀ [juhúvā] sám añje (I, 61, 5) 'for Indra I reveal a song of praise with my tongue' (present middle, with preverb sám) [356]
• tváṣṭā rūpā́ṇi hí prabhúḥ, paśū́n víśvān samānajé (I, 188, 9) 'for Tvashtar presides over the forms, he has made manifest all the beasts' (perfect middle, with preverb sám, quoted in the introduction to Lesson 8) [357]
• imā́ṃ te dhíyam prá bhare mahó mahī́m, asyá stotré dhiṣáṇā yát ta [te] ānajé (I, 102, 1) 'this thought I offer to you, mighty for the mighty, when your power to inspire has been made manifest in this man's song of praise' [358]
• yác chasyáse [yát śasyáse] dyúbhir aktó [aktás] vácobhis, táj [tát] juṣasva jaritúr ghóṣi mánma (VI, 5, 6) 'when you (Agni) are praised through the course of days, made manifest with words, then enjoy the voiced (ghósi, compare ghóṣa in example 335) thought of the singer' (past participle) [359]
• dídr̥kṣanta uṣáso yā́man aktór, vivásvatyā máhi citrám ánīkam, víśve jānanti mahinā́ yád ā́gād, índrasya kárma súkr̥tā purū́ṇi (III, 30, 13) 'they long to see, at the approach of the glimmering light (aktú) of dawn, the great bright face of the radiant one; all know when she has come in her glory -- the many deeds of Indra are well done' [360] (=223)

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