Ancient Sanskrit Online

Lesson Text

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Grammar

31 Iteration.

Iterative compounds, where the same word -- regularly in inflected form -- is repeated, express succession in time or space or repetition, and are a common feature of the Rigveda. Of the four in this lesson text divé-dive 'day after day' is ancient and occurs many times. Such compounds are however freely formed, and often appear only once. The dative cákṣuse-cakṣuse 'to every eye' from cákṣus 'eye, sight' (compare cákṣas 'seeing, sight', and its derivative sucákṣas in the third verse), and the instrumental áhnā-ahnā 'with repeated daylight', together with adjectival vásyasā-vasyasā, 'better and better', are only found in this passage. Any part of speech is capable of being compounded in this way: ihéha [ihá-iha] '(here-here) here and there, everywhere'; yád-yat [yát-yat] 'whatever'.

• jyótiṣmatīm áditiṃ dhārayátkṣitiṃ, svàrvatīm ā́ sacete divé-dive, jāgr̥vā́ṃsā divé-dive (I, 136, 3) 'you accompany Aditi hither day after day, she who is made of light, sustaining the races of man, possessing sunlight, you two, watchful day after day' [205]
• agníṃ náro ví bharante gr̥hé-gr̥he [...] agníṃ vr̥ṇānā́ vr̥ṇate kavíkratum (V, 11, 4) 'men distribute fire in every house... choosing Agni they choose the sage-wise' [206] (second line = 80)
• yád-yad yā́mi tád ā́ bhara (VIII, 61, 6) 'whatever I solicit, bring that hither' [207]
• samānó ádhvā svásror anantás, tám anyā́nyā [anyā́-anyā] carato deváśiṣṭe (I, 113, 3) 'The sisters (Night and Dawn) have the same unending course, they move along it alternately (other-other), god-instructed' [208]
• bráhma-brahma yé jujuṣúḥ (IX, 77, 3) 'those who delight in all prayers' [209]

The same word may also be repeated in the sentence in a different case to convey a superlative sense, as in English 'king of kings'. In the last verse of X, 112 sákhe sákhīnām 'O friend of friends / best of friends' is addressed to Indra, and at VI, 61, 10 Sarasvati is described as priyā́ priyā́su 'dear among the dear (f)/ dearest of all streams'. Filial piety is praised as vápuṣo vápuṣṭaram 'more marvellous than a marvel' in X, 32, 3, and the example svādóḥ svā́dīyaḥ 'sweeter than the sweet', describing speech, was given in the last lesson (number 187).

32 Adjectives with pronominal declension.

Some adjectives displaying elements of the pronominal declension that ressemble comparatives and superlatives in form, like ávara 'more recent' and avamá 'most recent', were described in section 29.2 of the last lesson. Another, similarly temporal in meaning and exhibiting both pronominal and adjectival forms, is pū́rva 'former, previous'. The adjectives víśva 'every, all' and sárva 'whole, all' (Latin salvus), like éka 'one', follow the pronominal declension with the exception of the nominative/accusative singular neuter forms, víśvam and sárvam. The usual Rigvedic word meaning 'all', víśva, which is superseded in the later language by sárva, has appeared four times in the lesson texts, twice here and twice in Lesson 1, in forms that could be either pronominal or adjectival. In a passage quoted in the Introduction to the Lesson 5 text however it shows its pronominal nature: áditir mātā́ sá pitā́ sá putráḥ, víśve devā́ áditiḥ (I, 89, 10) 'Aditi is mother, father, son; Aditi is all the gods'.

The adjective anyá 'other' in the feminine iterative compound anyā́-anyā in example 208 above, like katará and katamá described in the last section of Lesson 6, follows the pronominal declension throughout. Further pronominal forms are illustrated below. The last example is from the second verse of the lesson text poem.

• yé cid dhí [cit hí] tvā́m ŕ̥ṣayaḥ pū́rva [pū́rve] ūtáye, juhūré ávase mahi, sā́ na stómām̐ abhí gr̥ṇīhi rā́dhasā (I, 48, 14) 'as all those seers of old invoked you for help, for aid, O great goddess, so reciprocate (lit. 'sing towards') our songs of praise with generosity' [210]
• prá vīryèṇa devátā́ti [devátā áti] cekite, víśvasmā [víśvasmai] ugráḥ kármaṇe puróhitaḥ (I, 55, 3) 'among the gods (Indra) is pre-eminent for heroism, strong, placed in front for every deed' [211]
• víśvasmān [víśvasmāt] no áṃhaso níṣ pipartana (1, 106, 1-6) 'from all trouble deliver us' [212]
• vayā́ [vayā́s] íd agne agnáyas te anyé, tvé víśve amŕ̥tā [amŕ̥tās] mādayante (I, 59, 1) 'other fires, Agni, are indeed your offshoots (vayā́, feminine), all the immortals delight in you' [213]
• víśvam anyán [anyát] ní viśate yád éjati, viśvā́hā́po [viśvā́hā ā́pas] viśvā́hód [viśvā́hā út] eti sū́ryaḥ (X, 37, 2) 'all else that stirs comes to rest, always the waters, the sun always rises' [214]

33 Derivative verbs.

There are three derivative conjugations which give the verbal root an extended sense, forming tenses, moods and participles. By far the most common of these is the causative, which, by means of a suffix added to the root, turns 'he goes' into 'he causes to go'. Intensives and desideratives similarly extend the meaning of the root to something like 'he insists on going', and 'he wishes to go'. Allied to these is a class of verbs called denominatives which make verbs out of nouns, like English to holiday (to vacation), or to fish.

33.1 The causative.

Causatives are formed by adding -áya to the root, which is often in strengthened form. They are inflected like verbs of the thematic conjugation of the Present System. Several examples have already appeared in the lessons. Two masculine causative active participles described Savitar in the Lesson 2 text: from the root √prath 'spread' pratháyan 'extending', and from √viś with preverb ní, niveśáyan 'bringing to rest'. The feminine causative participle prabodháyantī 'causing to wake', from √budh 'wake' with preverb prá, described dawn in example number 99. Causative forms of the imperfect tense occurred in example 113, aprathayas 'you caused to spread' from √prath again, and example 143, arocayan 'they caused to shine' from √ruc; both verbs have lost the accent as the main verb in the sentence. Another masculine causative active participle describes the sun in the first verse of this lesson text, áheḷayan 'not causing hostility', where the causative element -áya has lost the accent to the privative prefix.

Some verbs which are causative in form however lack a causative sense, like mādayante 'they delight in' from √mad 'delight in' in example 213 in the last section. Two participles which are causative in appearance but have no causative sense have also occurred in the examples: the first element of the compound dhārayát-kṣiti 'sustaining the races of man' in example 205 at the beginning of this lesson is from the root √dhr̥ 'hold fast, sustain', and in example 192, máno jáviṣṭham patáyatsu antáḥ (VI, 9, 5) 'among flying things the understanding is swiftest', patáyatsu is locative plural of patáyant, from √pat 'fly, fall' (compare Greek πέτομαι). The verse that follows this, VI, 9, 6, quoted below in section 34, gives another example of patáya- without a causative sense, and √jan 'produce, create, bear', similarly uses the causative form without distinction of meaning, as in example 216.

• yám vardháyanti íd gíraḥ (VI, 44, 5) '(Indra,) whom songs indeed make grow (from √vr̥dh 'grow')' [215]
• gūḷháṃ jyótiḥ pitáro ánv [ánu] avindan, satyámantrā [satyámantrās] ajanayann [ajanayan] uṣā́sam (VII, 76, 4) 'the fathers found the hidden light, with true prayer (true-prayered) they brought forth (imperfect causative of √jan) the dawn' [216]
• prá bodhayā [bodhaya] púraṃdhiṃ, jārá ā́ sasatī́m iva, prá cakṣaya ródasī vāsayoṣásaḥ [vāsaya uṣásas] (I, 134, 3) '(Wind,) wake up (causative imperative, from √budh) abundance, like a lover a sleeping girl (feminine participle, from sasánt 'sleeping'); make both worlds visible (from √cakṣ 'see'), make the dawns light up (from √vas 'shine')' [217]

33.2 The intensive.

The intensive, like the subgroup of athematic verbs described in section 13.1 and most verbs of the Perfect System, is marked by reduplication of the root. The distinguishing feature of the reduplication of the intensive is that the reduplicating vowel is usually strong: i and u reduplicate as e and o, a generally reduplicates as ā, and r̥ as ar. An example of an intensive participle occurred in the last lesson text, where Indra is described as véviṣat 'indefatigable', from √viṣ 'be active'. The inflection of intensives follows that of the reduplicating athematic verbs. Some verbs add a connecting i or ī before the endings, as in the first example below.

• kiṃyúr vípro nadíyo johavīti (Lesson 3 text) 'the poet entreats (from √hū, hávate 'call upon') the streams; what does he want?' [218]
• prá yā́ mahimnā́ mahínāsu cékite (VI, 61, 13) '(Sarasvati) who is pre-eminent for greatness among the great' (from √cit, cétati 'perceive'; mahimnā́ mahínāsu echoes priyā́ priyā́su from the same poem quoted above in section 31) [219]
• ví pā́jasā pr̥thúnā śóśucāno, bā́dhasva dviṣó rakṣáso ámīvāḥ (III, 15, 1) '(O fire,) with broad lustre burning (intensive middle participle from √śuc 'be bright'), drive away hatreds, the afflictions of the fiend' (compare the perfect middle participle śuśucāná in example 170) [220]
• evā́ [evá] na indra vā́ryasya pūrdhi, prá te mahī́ṃ sumatíṃ vevidāma (VII, 24, 6; VII, 25, 6) 'so, Indra, fill us with bounty, may we ever find (intensive subjunctive of √vid, vindáti 'find') great favour with you' [221]

33.3 The desiderative.

Desiderative forms are uncommon, and only one example, íyakṣantas 'desiring to worship' in the Lesson 6 text, has occurred so far. Like intensives they are marked by reduplication. The reduplicating syllable is in this case usually i, and carries the accent. Desiderative forms add the suffix -sa, often -ṣa, before the endings, which, as with causatives, are those of the thematic conjugation of the Present System.

• prá yáṃ rāyé nínīṣasi, márto yás te vaso dā́śat (VIII, 103, 4) 'the one whom you desire to lead forth to treasure (from √nī with preverb prá), the mortal who will worship you, generous one' [222]
• dídr̥kṣanta [dídr̥kṣante] uṣáso yā́man aktór, vivásvatyā [vivásvatyās] máhi citrám ánīkam, víśve jānanti mahinā́ yád ā́gād [ā́ ágāt], índrasya kárma súkr̥tā purū́ṇi (III, 30, 13) 'they long to see (from √dr̥ś), at the approach of the glimmering light of dawn, the great bright face of the radiant one; all know when she has come in her glory -- the many deeds of Indra are well done' [223]

33.4 The denominative.

Most nouns in Sanskrit are derived from verbal roots with the addition of suffixes: mánas, mánman, manīṣā́ and mántra, from which the compound satya-mantrá in example 216 above is formed, are all derivatives of the verbal root √man 'think'. Denominatives are formed the other way round; they are verbal formations made from nouns with the suffix -ya. Like causatives and desideratives, denominatives follow the inflection of thematic verbs of the Present System.

The first two examples below illustrate the chief functions of the twin horsemen, the Ashvins.

• anārambhaṇé tád avīrayethām, anāsthāné agrabhaṇé samudré, yád aśvinā ūháthur bhujyúm ástaṃ, śatā́ritrāṃ nā́vam ātasthivā́ṃsam (I, 116, 5) 'you performed that heroic deed (avīrayethām, dual middle imperfect, from vīrá 'hero') in the unsteady, baseless, holdless sea, when, Ashvins, you brought Bhujyu home (ástam) aboard a ship with a hundred oars' [224]
• tā́bhir no makṣū́ tū́yam aśvinā́ [aśvinā ā́] gatam, bhiṣajyátaṃ yád ā́turam (VIII, 22, 10) 'with these (aids), O Ashvins, come to us speedily, quickly, heal (dual active imperative, from bhiṣáj 'healer') what is sick' [225]
• kratūyánti krátavo hr̥tsú dhītáyaḥ (X, 64, 2) 'conceptual powers, thoughts, have power in our hearts (hŕ̥d (n) 'heart')' [226]

34 The Future System.

The future tense is rare in the Rigveda, as its function is usually supplied by the subjunctive. It is formed by adding the suffix -syá or -iṣyá to the root, the inflection then again following the thematic conjugation of the Present System. Future participles, like kariṣyánt 'going to do', and the feminine vakṣyántī 'being about to speak' at VI, 75, 3, are only slightly less rare. Only one modal form (the subjunctive kariṣyā́s) is found in the Rigveda.

• saúdhanvanā [saúdhanvanās] yádi evā́ kariṣyátha, sākáṃ devaír yajñíyāso bhaviṣyatha (I, 161, 2) 'Sons of Sudhanvan, when you will do so, you will become worthy of worship together with the gods' [227]
• ví me kárṇā patayato ví cákṣur, vī́dáṃ [ví idám] jyótir hŕ̥daya [hŕ̥daye] ā́hitaṃ yát, ví me mánaś carati dūráādhīḥ, kíṃ svid vakṣyā́mi kím u nū́ maniṣye (VI, 9, 6) 'away fly my ears, off goes my sight, away this light which is set deep in the heart (hŕ̥daya (n), compare hŕ̥d in example 226); away goes my understanding with thoughts far away -- what pray shall I say (from √vac), what now then shall I think?' [228]

35 Further notes on the accent.

35.1 Finite verbs.

Verbs are accented if they begin the line or sentence, or if they are in subordinate clauses. In the first verse of the lesson text we know that the verb in the second line, 'you rise', is, like 'you protect' in the first line, dependent on hí 'since' because it too is accented. In addition, as a sentence is regarded as only able to have one main verb, subsequent main verbs tend to be accented, as in the first two examples.

In the third example the verb is accented because it is preceded only by a vocative, which is not considered to be part of the sentence. The verb becomes the first true word in the sentence.

• śócā [śóca] śociṣṭha dīdihí viśé máyaḥ (VIII, 60, 6) 'be bright, O brightest one, shine happiness for the folk' [229] (=191)
• prá pinvadhvam iṣáyantīḥ surā́dhā, ā́ vakṣáṇāḥ pr̥ṇádhvaṃ yātá śī́bham (III, 33, 12) 'swell forth, refreshing, bringing good gifts, fill full the fertile places, travel swiftly' [230] (=76)
• vā́yo yāhí śivā́ [śiva ā́] diváḥ (VIII, 26, 23) 'O friendly wind, come from heaven' [231]

35.2 Verbs and participles with preverbs.

When a verb in a subordinate clause is immediately preceded by a preverb the two words are compounded and the preverb loses its accent, as in uccárasi and upabrávāmahai in the first verse of the lesson text. In the same way, when present participles and preverbs combine the preverb loses the accent, as illustrated by āróhant and udyánt in the lesson text, and the middle participle āśuṣānás 'breathing deeply' in example 132. The same is true of perfect participles: compare ātasthivā́ṃs in example 224 above.

The opposite however is generally the case when past participles combine with preverbs or prefixes. The verbal form then loses the accent, as with préṣita [prá-iṣita] in the first line of this lesson text, and níhitāsas in the introduction to this lesson and ā́hita in example 228, both of which are formed with the irregular past participle of √dhā 'place', hitá.

• yásmin devā́ mánmani saṃcáranti (X, 12, 8) 'in what thought the gods unite (we do not know)' [232] (=51)
• yajñéna vācáḥ padavī́yam āyan, tā́m ánv avindann [avindan] ŕ̥ṣiṣu práviṣṭām (X, 71, 3) 'worshipfully they traced the footsteps of Speech; they found her entered (past participle of √viś 'enter' with preverb prá) among the seers' [233]
• víśve jānanti mahinā́ yád ā́gād [ā́ ágāt], índrasya kárma súkr̥tā purū́ṇi (III, 30, 13) 'all know when she has come in her glory -- the many deeds of Indra are well done (past participle of √kr̥ 'do' with prefix su-)' [234] (=223)
• agníṃ īḷe puróhitam (I, 1, 1) 'I praise Agni, placed at the head (past participle of √dhā with prepositional prefix purás 'in front')' [235]

35.3 Compounds with irregular double accentuation.

Most words are singly accented, even when they are compounds formed by combining two accented words: so from examples in this lesson dharayát-kṣiti (205), kaví-kratu (206), devá-śiṣṭa (208), satyá-mantra (216), and candrá-mās 'shining moon' in the lesson introduction. In such compounds the first word has the form of the uninflected stem. Iterative compounds, as described in section 31, always drop the accent from the second element: divé-dive, anyá-anya.

The names of deities that are regularly addressed together are often combined into ancient dual compounds, like the vocative mitrāvaruṇā in the lesson introduction, and when these compounds show the dual ending on both elements, as dyā́vā-pr̥thivī́ in the lesson text also does, some retain both accents (but not all: see example 238). Similarly vánas-páti 'forest-lord, tree', where the first element has preserved the genitive ending, is doubly accented, as is bŕ̥has-páti, perhaps an earlier form of bráhmaṇas páti 'lord of prayer', leading to the triply-accented dual compound índrā-bŕ̥haspátī at IV, 49, 5.

• táṃ no dyā́vāpr̥thivī́ tán no ā́pa, índraḥ śr̥ṇvantu marúto hávaṃ vácaḥ (lesson text) 'that call of ours may Heaven and Earth, the waters, hear, Indra and the storm gods hear that speech' [236]
• índra óṣadhīr asanod áhāni, vánaspátīm̐r [vánaspátīn] asanod antárikṣam (III, 34, 10) 'Indra won the plants, the days, he won the trees, the atmosphere' (quoted in the introduction to Lesson 6) [237]
• svastí pánthām ánu carema, sūryācandramásāv [sūryā-candramásau] iva (V, 51, 15) 'with wellbeing may we follow the path, like the sun and shining moon' [238]

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