Indo-European Lexicon
PIE Etymon and IE Reflexes
Below we display: a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) etymon adapted from Pokorny, with our own English gloss; our Semantic Field assignment(s) for the etymon, linked to information about the field(s); an optional Comment; and Reflexes (derived words) in various Indo-European languages, organized by family/group in west-to-east order where Germanic is split into West/North/East families and English, our language of primary emphasis, is artificially separated from West Germanic. IE Reflexes appear most often as single words with any optional letter(s) enclosed in parentheses; but alternative full spellings are separated by '/' and "principal parts" appear in a standard order (e.g. masculine, feminine, and neuter forms) separated by commas.
Reflexes are annotated with: Part-of-Speech and/or other Grammatical feature(s); a short Gloss which, especially for modern English reflexes, may be confined to the oldest sense; and some Source citation(s) with 'LRC' always understood as editor. Keys to PoS/Gram feature abbreviations and Source codes appear below the reflexes; at the end are links to the previous/next etyma [in Pokorny's alphabetic order] that have reflexes.
All reflex pages are currently under active construction; as time goes on, corrections may be made and/or more etyma & reflexes may be added.
Pokorny Etymon: bhereg̑h-, bherg̑hos- 'high, noble; barrow, mountain'
Semantic Field(s): High, Noble, Nobleman, Hill, Mountain
Indo-European Reflexes:
| Family/Language | Reflex(es) | PoS/Gram. | Gloss | Source(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Celtic | ||||
| Old Irish: | borg, brog, brugh | n | castle | RPN |
| brigh | n | barrow | CDC | |
| brī, brig | n.fem | brae | GED | |
| Irish: | bri | n | barrow | CDC |
| Breton: | bre | n | barrow | CDC |
| Cornish: | bre | n | brae | LRC |
| Welsh: | bera | n | heap | GED |
| bre | n | brae, barrow | CDC | |
| Gaulish: | Berg- | prop.n | Berg- | GED |
| Brig-antes | prop.n | Brigantes | GED | |
| Brig-antia | prop.n | Bregenz | GED | |
| English | ||||
| Old English: | beorg, beorh | n.masc | barrow | LRC |
| beorgan | vb | to cover, protect | CDC | |
| biorg, biorh | n.masc | barrow | ASD | |
| bre(o)go, bregu, brega | n.masc | lord, prince, king, ruler | ASD | |
| burg, bur(u)h | n | borough, fortified place/town/city | CDC/RPN | |
| mund-beorh | n.masc | sheltering-hill | ASD | |
| Middle English: | berfreid, belfray | n | belfry | CDC |
| berfrey, belfry | n | belfry | W7 | |
| bergh, berw, ber(u)z, beoruh | n | barrow | CDC/W7 | |
| borwe, borowe, boruz, buruh | n | borough | CDC | |
| bourg, bor(u)gh | n | bourg | MEV/W7 | |
| bra | n | brae | W7 | |
| burgeis | n | burgess, bourgeois | W7 | |
| burgh | n | borough | W7 | |
| comforten | vb | to comfort | W7 | |
| deforcen | vb | to deforce | W7 | |
| enforcen | vb | to enforce | W7 | |
| fabour | n | faubourg | W7 | |
| force | n | force | W7 | |
| fortalice | n | fortalice | W7 | |
| forte | n | fort | W7 | |
| forteresse | n | fortress | W7 | |
| fortifien | vb | to fortify | W7 | |
| fortitude | n | fortitude | W7 | |
| English: | barrow | n | hill, mountain; mound, tumulus | AHD/W7 |
| Barrow-downs | prop.n | Shire area in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| Barrowfield | prop.n | Rohan cemetery in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| Barrow-wight | prop.n | tomb-wraith in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| belfry | n | siege tower | AHD/W2I | |
| borough | n | fortified group of houses forming town | AHD/W7 | |
| bourg | n | town, village | AHD/W7 | |
| bourgeois | n | burgher | AHD/W7 | |
| brae | n | hill, hillside, highland | W7 | |
| Bree | prop.n | hillside town in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| Bree-land | prop.n | highland area in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| Brego | prop.n | 2nd Rohan king in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| burg | n | borough, walled bourg, (ancient) fortress | W7 | |
| burgess | n | burgher, citizen of British borough | AHD/W7 | |
| burgher | n | town/borough inhabitant | W7 | |
| burglar | n | thief, one who commits burglary | AHD/W7 | |
| burgomaster | n | mayor, chief magistrate of town | AHD/W7 | |
| comfort | vb.trans | to cheer, give strength/hope to | AHD/W7 | |
| deforce | vb.trans | to keep (lands) by force from rightful owner | AHD/W7 | |
| Dwimorberg | prop.n | haunted mountain in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| effort | n | conscious exertion of power | AHD/W7 | |
| enforce | vb.trans | to strengthen, give force to | AHD/W7 | |
| faubourg | n | suburb | AHD/W7 | |
| force | n | strength/energy exerted/brought to bear | AHD/W7 | |
| fort | n | strong/fortified place | AHD/W7 | |
| fortalice | n | fortress | AHD/W7 | |
| forte | adj/adv | loud(ly), powerful(ly) | AHD/W7 | |
| forte | n | one's strong point | AHD/W7 | |
| fortify | vb | to make strong | AHD/W7 | |
| fortis | adj | produced with strong expiration/articulatory tenseness | AHD/W7 | |
| fortissimo | adv | very loud | AHD/W7 | |
| fortitude | n | strength | AHD/W7 | |
| fortress | n | stronghold, fortified place | AHD/W7 | |
| Hornburg | prop.n | Rohan fortress in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| iceberg | n | large floating ice mass detached from glacier | AHD/W7 | |
| inselberg | n | isolated mountain | AHD/W2I | |
| Mundberg, Mundburg | prop.n | a.k.a. Minas Tirith in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| Norbury | prop.n | town a.k.a. Fornost in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| reinforce | vb.trans | to strengthen, give more force/effectiveness to | AHD | |
| Tuckborough | prop.n | Shire village in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| West Germanic | ||||
| Old Frisian: | berch, birg | n.str.masc | barrow | ASD/GED |
| berg | n | barrow | CDC | |
| bur(i)ch | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| Middle Dutch: | bergfert, bergfrede | n | protecting shelter | CDC |
| burch, borch | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| Dutch: | berg | n | barrow | CDC |
| burg | n | burg, castle, fortified place | W7 | |
| burgemeester | n | burgomaster | W7 | |
| herberg | n | inn | TLL | |
| schouwburg | n | theater | TLL | |
| Old Saxon: | berg | n.str.masc | barrow | GED |
| bur(u)g | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| Middle Low German: | borch | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC |
| Old High German: | berg | n.str.masc | barrow | GED |
| bergan | vb | to cover, protect | CDC | |
| bur(u)g, bur(u)c | n | burg, bourg, castle, fortified place | CDC/RPN | |
| perac | n | barrow | ASD | |
| Middle High German: | berc | n | barrow | ASD |
| bercfrit, bercvrit | n | belfry | CDC | |
| berchfrit, berhfride | n | belfry | CDC | |
| bergen | vb | to cover, protect | CDC | |
| burc | n | burg, bourg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| German: | Berg | n.masc | barrow | ASD |
| bergen | vb | to cover, protect | CDC | |
| Brieg | prop.n | Brieg | GED | |
| Burg | n.fem | burg, castle, fortified place | LRC | |
| Bürger | n.masc | burgher | LRC | |
| Fort | n.neut | fort | LRC | |
| Gebirge | n.neut.coll | mountains, mountain range | TLL | |
| North Germanic | ||||
| Old Norse: | berg | n.neut | barrow | ASD |
| Old Icelandic: | berg | n.str.masc | rock, barrow | GED |
| bjarg | n.str.masc | rock, barrow | GED | |
| Icelandic: | berg, bjarg | n | rock, precipice | CDC |
| borg | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| bragr | n.masc | prince, leader | ASD | |
| Norwegian: | berg | n | barrow | W7 |
| isberg | n | iceberg | W7 | |
| Danish: | bjærg | n.neut | barrow | ASD |
| borg | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| Swedish: | berg | n.neut | barrow | ASD |
| borg | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| East Germanic | ||||
| Gothic: | *bairgahei | n.fem | mountainous area | GED |
| bairgan | vb | to cover, protect | CDC | |
| *bairgs | n | barrow | RPN | |
| baurgs | n.str.fem | burg, tower, fortified place | GED | |
| baurgs-waddjus | n.masc | city wall | KGW | |
| Italic | ||||
| Latin: | burgus | n.masc | burg, bourg | W7 |
| fortis, fortis | adj | fortified | LRC | |
| fortitudo, fortitudinis | n.fem | fortitude | W7 | |
| Vulgar Latin: | fortia | n.fem | strength | W7 |
| Late Latin: | conforto, confortāre | vb | to strengthen greatly | W7 |
| fortifico, fortificāre | vb | to fortify | W7 | |
| Middle Latin: | ber(e)fredus, berefridus | n | belfry | CDC |
| burgus | n | burg, bourg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| Medieval Latin: | burgator | n.masc | burglar | W7 |
| burglator | n.masc | burglar | W7 | |
| burgo, burgare, burgatus | vb | to commit burglary | W7 | |
| fortalitia | n.fem | strength | W7 | |
| Portuguese: | burgo | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC |
| fôrça | n | force | TLL | |
| forte | adj | strong, forte | TLL | |
| Spanish: | burgo | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC |
| fuerte | adj | strong, forte | TLL | |
| fuerza | n | force | TLL | |
| Old French: | berfrai, berfray, berefreit | n | belfry | CDC |
| berfroi, belefroi | n | belfry | CDC | |
| borc | n.masc | bourg | W7 | |
| borg, burc | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| borjois | n.masc | burgess | W7 | |
| burgeis | n | bourgeois | CDC | |
| conforter | vb | to console, stengthen | W7 | |
| deforcier | vb | to force, compel | W7 | |
| enforcier | vb | to make stronger | W7 | |
| esforcier | vb | to force | W7 | |
| esfort | n.masc | effort | W7 | |
| force | n.fem | force; scissors, cutters | W7 | |
| forcier | vb | to force | W7 | |
| fors | adv | outside | W7 | |
| forsborc | n.masc | faubourg | W7 | |
| Old North French: | belfroi | n | belfry | AHD |
| Anglo-French: | burgler | n.masc | burglar | W7 |
| Middle French: | berfrei | n.masc | bell-tower | W7 |
| bourg | n.masc | bourg | W7 | |
| bourgeois | n.masc | town-dweller | W7 | |
| effort | n.masc | effort | W7 | |
| enforcier | vb | to enforce | W7 | |
| force | n.fem | force | W7 | |
| forsbourg, fauxbourg | n.masc | faubourg, suburbs | W7 | |
| fort | adj | strong | W7 | |
| forteresce | n.fem | fortress | W7 | |
| fortifier | vb | to fortify | W7 | |
| French: | beffroi | n | belfry, watchtower, bell tower | CDC |
| bourg | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| bourgeois | n | bourgeois | CDC | |
| force | n.fem | force | LRC | |
| fort | adj | strong, forte | TLL | |
| Provençal: | borc | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC |
| Italian: | battifredo | n | belfry | CDC |
| borgo | n | burg, castle, fortified place | CDC | |
| forte | adj | strong, forte | W7 | |
| fortissimo | adj.sup | strongest | W7 | |
| forza | n | force | TLL | |
| Slavic | ||||
| Polish: | brzeg | n | bank, shore | CDC |
| Czech: | breh | n | bank, shore | CDC |
| Serbian: | brijeg | n | bank, shore | CDC |
| Old Church Slavonic: | brěgъ | n | bank, cliff | GED |
| Russian: | beregŭ | n | bank, shore | CDC |
| Hellenic | ||||
| Greek: | πύργος | n | tower | RPN |
| Anatolian | ||||
| Hittite: | parkatar | n | height | GED |
| párkuš | adj | high | GED | |
| Armenian | ||||
| Armenian: | barjr | adj | high | GED |
| -berj | n | height | GED | |
| erkna-berj | adj | sky-high | GED | |
| Iranian | ||||
| Avestan: | barəzah- | n | height | GED |
| berezanh | n | height, barrow | CDC | |
| bərəz(ant)- | adj | high, great, lofty | GED | |
| Indic | ||||
| Sanskrit: | bṛhánt- | adj | high, tall, great, strong | RPN |
| brihant | adj | strong, mighty, lofty | CDC | |
| brih, barh | vb | to be thick/strong | CDC | |
| Tocharian | ||||
| Tocharian B: | pärk- | vb | to rise (sun) | RPN |
| Tocharian A: | pärk-, park- | vb | to rise (sun) | RPN |
Key to Part-of-Speech/Grammatical feature abbreviations:
| Abbrev. | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|
| adj | = | adjective |
| adv | = | adverb(ial) |
| coll | = | collective |
| fem | = | feminine (gender) |
| masc | = | masculine (gender) |
| n | = | noun |
| neut | = | neuter (gender) |
| prop | = | proper |
| str | = | strong (inflection) |
| sup | = | superlative |
| trans | = | transitive |
| vb | = | verb |
Key to information Source codes (always with 'LRC' as editor):
| Code | Citation | |
|---|---|---|
| AHD | = | Calvert Watkins: The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed. (2000) |
| ASD | = | Joseph Bosworth and T. Northcote Toller: An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898) |
| CDC | = | W.D. Whitney and B.E. Smith: The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (1889-1911) |
| GED | = | Winfred P. Lehmann: A Gothic Etymological Dictionary (1986) |
| KGW | = | Gerhard Köbler: Gotisches Wörterbuch, 2nd ed. (1989) |
| LRC | = | Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas, Austin |
| MEV | = | J.R.R. Tolkien: A Middle English Vocabulary (1922) |
| RPN | = | Allan R. Bomhard: Reconstructing Proto-Nostratic (2002) |
| TLL | = | Frederick Bodmer: The Loom of Language (1944) |
| W2I | = | Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd ed. (1959) |
| W7 | = | Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1963) |
