Indo-European Lexicon
PIE Etymon and IE Reflexes
Below we display: a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) etymon adapted from Pokorny, with our own English gloss; our Semantic Field assignment(s) for the etymon, linked to information about the field(s); an optional Comment; and Reflexes (derived words) in various Indo-European languages, organized by family/group in west-to-east order where Germanic is split into West/North/East families and English, our language of primary emphasis, is artificially separated from West Germanic. IE Reflexes appear most often as single words with any optional letter(s) enclosed in parentheses; but alternative full spellings are separated by '/' and "principal parts" appear in a standard order (e.g. masculine, feminine, and neuter forms) separated by commas.
Reflexes are annotated with: Part-of-Speech and/or other Grammatical feature(s); a short Gloss which, especially for modern English reflexes, may be confined to the oldest sense; and some Source citation(s) with 'LRC' always understood as editor. Keys to PoS/Gram feature abbreviations and Source codes appear below the reflexes; at the end are links to the previous/next etyma [in Pokorny's alphabetic order] that have reflexes.
All reflex pages are currently under active construction; as time goes on, corrections may be made and/or more etyma & reflexes may be added.
Pokorny Etymon: 3. kar-, reduplicated karkar- 'hard'
Semantic Field(s): Hard
Indo-European Reflexes:
| Family/Language | Reflex(es) | PoS/Gram. | Gloss | Source(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Celtic | ||||
| Old Irish: | carn | n | cairn | W7 |
| carrac | n.fem | carr, cliff | IEW | |
| Scots Gaelic: | carn | n | cairn | W7 |
| Cornish: | karrek | n | carr | LRC |
| Welsh: | carn | n | cairn | W7 |
| carreg | n | carr | LRC | |
| English | ||||
| Old English: | h(e)ard | adj | hard, stern, strong, brave | ASD |
| hearding | n.masc | hero, warrior, brave man | ASD | |
| heardlīce | adv | hardly, harshly, bravely | AHD | |
| hearg, hear(c)h, herh | n.masc | temple | ASD/IEW | |
| Northumbrian: | carr | n | carr | OED |
| Middle English: | -ard | sfx | -ard | W7 |
| cancer | n | cancer | W7 | |
| canker | n | canker | W7 | |
| carne | n | cairn | W7 | |
| hard | adj | hard | W7 | |
| hardi | adj | hardy | W7 | |
| hardli | adv | hardly | AHD | |
| standard | n | standard | W7 | |
| English: | -ard | n.sfx | one characterized by some performance/possession/association | AHD/W7 |
| autocrat | n | ruler with unchecked power | TLL | |
| cairn | n | heap of stones (as landmark/memorial) | W7 | |
| Cancer | prop.n | the Crab (northern zodiacal constellation) | AHD/W7 | |
| cancer | n | (disease involving) malignant tumor | AHD/W7 | |
| canker | n | erosive/spreading sore | AHD/W7 | |
| carangid | adj | re: marine spiny-finned food fish | AHD/W7 | |
| carcin(o)- | pfx | crab; tumor | AHD/W7 | |
| carcinoma | n | malignant epithelial tumor | AHD/W7 | |
| careen | n | state of careening/being careened | AHD/W7 | |
| carina | n | keel-shaped anatomical part/ridge/process | AHD/W7 | |
| carr | n | rock, stone, boulder | OED | |
| Carrock | prop.n | huge boulder in Tolkien: The Hobbit | LRC | |
| chancre | n | primary sore/ulcer at site of entry of pathogen | AHD/W7 | |
| -cracy | n.sfx | form of government | AHD/W7 | |
| Dúnharg, Dunharrow | prop.n | Rohan refuge in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| hard | adj | not easily penetrated/yielding to pressure | AHD/W7 | |
| Hardbottle | prop.n | Shire village in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| Harding | prop.n | Rohan rider in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| hardly | adv | just, barely | AHD | |
| hardy | adj | brave, bold | AHD/W7 | |
| Harrowdale | prop.n | Rohan valley in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| standard | n | conspicuous object (banner) serving as emblem | AHD/W7 | |
| synkaryon | n | cell nucleus formed by fusion of preexisting nuclei | AHD/W7 | |
| Underharrow | prop.n | Rohan village in Tolkien: The Lord of the Rings | LRC | |
| West Germanic | ||||
| Old Frisian: | herd | adj | hard | RPN |
| Old Saxon: | hard | adj | hard | RPN |
| Old High German: | Gērhart | prop.n | Gerard | W7 |
| -hart | prop.n.sfx | -ard [used in personal names] | W7 | |
| hart(i), hert(i) | adj | hard | ASD/RPN | |
| haruc(h), harug | n.masc | temple | ASD | |
| Middle High German: | -hart | prop.n.sfx | -ard | CDC |
| German: | -hart | n.sfx | -ard | CDC |
| hart | adj | hard | ASD | |
| North Germanic | ||||
| Old Norse: | harðr | adj | hard, sharp, severe | LRC |
| hǫrgr | n.masc | temple, (stone) altar, outdoor sanctuary | LRC | |
| Old Icelandic: | herða | vb | to make hard | RPN |
| Icelandic: | harðr | adj | hard | ASD |
| hörgr | n.masc | heathen place of worship | ASD | |
| Norwegian: | hard | adj | hard, strong | RPN |
| Danish: | haard | adj | hard, strong | RPN |
| Swedish: | hård | adj | hard, strong | RPN |
| East Germanic | ||||
| Gothic: | hardus | adj | hard, stern | RPN |
| Italic | ||||
| Latin: | Cancer | prop.n.masc | the Crab (constellation) | W7 |
| cancer | n.masc | crab, cancer | RPN | |
| carcinoma | n.neut | cancerous tumor | W7 | |
| carina | n.fem | ship's keel; nutshell | W7 | |
| Late Latin: | -cratia | sfx | power | W7 |
| New Latin: | carina | n.fem | carina | W7 |
| synkaryon | n.neut | cell nucleus formed by fusion of two nuclei | W7 | |
| Spanish: | caranga | n.fem | carangid (fish) | W7 |
| estandarte | n | standard | TLL | |
| Old French: | -ard | n.sfx | -ard | CDC |
| hardi | adj | bold, hardy | W7 | |
| Old North French: | cancre | n.masc | crab, canker, cancer | W7 |
| Middle French: | carène | n.fem | keel | W7 |
| -cratie | sfx | power | W7 | |
| French: | -ard | n.sfx | -ard | CDC |
| autocrate | n | autocrat | AHD | |
| chancre | n.masc | canker, chancre | W7 | |
| étandard | n | standard | TLL | |
| Old Italian: | carena | n.fem | ship's keel | W7 |
| Baltic | ||||
| Lithuanian: | kratùs | adj | rough, uneven | RPN |
| Hellenic | ||||
| Ionic: | κάρτος | n | strength, might | RPN |
| Homeric Greek: | κρατύς | adj | strong, mighty | RPN |
| Greek: | autokratēs | n | ruling by oneself | AHD |
| καρκίνος | n | crab | RPN | |
| karkinos | n.masc | crab, cancer | W7 | |
| karkinōma | n.neut | cancer | W7 | |
| κάρτα | adv | extremely, very much | LRC | |
| καρτερός | adj | strong, stout, staunch | RPN | |
| karyon | n.neut | nut | W7 | |
| κρατέω | vb | to hold fast, take to heart; rule, conquer | LRC | |
| -kratia | sfx | power, rule | W7 | |
| κράτος | n | strength, might, power | RPN | |
| Indic | ||||
| Sanskrit: | karkaṭa-ḥ | n | crab | RPN |
| karkara-ḥ | adj | hard, firm | RPN | |
| karkaśá-ḥ | adj | rough, hard | RPN | |
| Pali: | kakkasa- | adj | rough, harsh | RPN |
Key to Part-of-Speech/Grammatical feature abbreviations:
| Abbrev. | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|
| adj | = | adjective |
| adv | = | adverb(ial) |
| fem | = | feminine (gender) |
| masc | = | masculine (gender) |
| n | = | noun |
| neut | = | neuter (gender) |
| pfx | = | prefix |
| prop | = | proper |
| sfx | = | suffix |
| vb | = | verb |
Key to information Source codes (always with 'LRC' as editor):
| Code | Citation | |
|---|---|---|
| AHD | = | Calvert Watkins: The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed. (2000) |
| ASD | = | Joseph Bosworth and T. Northcote Toller: An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898) |
| CDC | = | W.D. Whitney and B.E. Smith: The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (1889-1911) |
| IEW | = | Julius Pokorny: Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch (1959) |
| LRC | = | Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas, Austin |
| OED | = | James A.H. Murray et al: The Oxford English Dictionary (1933) |
| RPN | = | Allan R. Bomhard: Reconstructing Proto-Nostratic (2002) |
| TLL | = | Frederick Bodmer: The Loom of Language (1944) |
| W7 | = | Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1963) |
