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46 Runes

The earliest writings of the Germanic peoples are in runes. Far from being the polished literary documents of the Old Norse sagas, these writings are generally short inscriptions on various objects ascribing ownership, naming the maker, or marking a burial site. They do not name any historical figures, nor are they found on any objects whose history is known from other sources. Even when inscriptions are found, say, on stones near burial sites whose dates are well known, there is no conclusive evidence that the inscription dates from the same time period as the burial. The dates of the inscriptions, therefore, are generally educated estimates. What is more certain, generally, is relative chronology. Archaeological dating is often based on stylistic grounds, observing ornamentation and workmanship. Historical linguistics serves as an alternate, and sometimes more conclusive, method of establishing relative chronology.

Runic inscriptions are found over a wide expanse of the Germanic speaking area, dating from roughly the middle of the second century AD. The greatest number of inscriptions comes from the Scandinavian speaking area. Two alphabets are encountered, the Older and Younger Futharks. The Older Futhark was an alphabet of 24 characters used in the earliest inscriptions. In time there was a reduction in the alphabetic inventory, so that the Younger Futhark contains only 16 letters. Paradoxically, this seems to have occured at a time when the Scandinavian sound inventory underwent an increase!

The major dialect groups within Germanic during the time of the runic inscriptions are Northwest Germanic, East Gmc, West Gmc, North Gmc, West Nordic, East Nordic. The following chart shows the general timeline for dialectal differentiation:

		100		200		300		400		500		600		700
NwGmc		[---								---]
EGmc				[---				---]
WGmc				[---								---]
NGmc								[---				---]
WNord												[---		---]
ENord												[---		---]

Northwest Germanic is sufficiently archaic to serve as the parent to West Germanic, as well as to the Scandinavian languages. North Germanic designates those linguistic features which are uniquely Scandinavian. The following sections will deal primarily with Northwest Germanic, because of its importance for understanding the earliest inscriptions.

46.1 Phonology

Proto-Germanic is the language stage intervening between Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and the Northwest Germanic language of the earliest runic inscriptions. Proto-Germanic (PGmc) may be thought of as a dialect of PIE which became so differentiated from other PIE dialects as to be treated as its own language. It serves as the parent for all of the Germanic languages. It inherited much of the structure of the parent PIE, but is characterized by certain divergences, particularly in the phonology. The vocalic system of Proto-Germanic may be reconstructed as follows.

PGmc		Simple						Long				Diphthong
		Front		Mid		Back		Front		Back
High		/i/				/u/		/ī/		/ū/
Mid		/e/										/ei/		/eu/
Low				/a/				/ǣ/		/ɔ̄̄/		/ai/		/au/

The consonant system may be reconstructed as well. Its structure is as follows.

PGmc		Labial		Dental		Palatal		Velar
Stops
voiceless		/p/		/t/				/k/
voiced		/b/		/d/				/g/
Fricatives
voiceless		/f/		/þ/				/h/
Nasals		/m/		/n/
Affricates
voiceless				/s/
voiced				/z/
Apical Trill				/r/
Lateral				/l/
Glides		/w/				/j/

Following the same geneological procedure, Northwest Germanic is similarly characterized by certain divergences from PGmc. The consonant system above is the same as that found in the earliest runic inscriptions. The vocalic system, however, is somewhat different. The following rules describe the changes that occured between PGmc and the appearance of the Northwest Germanic (NwGmc) dialect:

• Rule 1: nonroot */ɔ̄̄/ > /ū/ finally and when followed by */i/;
• Rule 2: nonroot */e/ > */i/ before final /z/;
• Rule 3: nonroot */e/ > */i/ before */i,j/;
• Rule 4: */i,e/ in third syllables is lost;
• Rule 5: */j/ > */i/, */w/ > */u/ when final or before a consonant;
• Rule 6: final */nz/ > */nn/;
• Rule 7: final */n/ after nonroot syllable is lost;
• Rule 8: final */d/ after nonroot syllable is lost;
• Rule 9: medial */gw/ > */w/;
• Rule 10: root */e/ > /i/ before */i,j/ or nasal+consonant;
• Rule 11: root */ǣ/ > /ā/;
• Rule 12: root */ɔ̄̄/ > */ō/;
• Rule 13: nonroot */ai/ > */æ/, */au/ > */ɔ̄̄/, */ii/ > /ī/;
• Rule 14: nonroot */æ/ > /ē/, */ɔ̄̄/ > */ō/;
• Rule 15: root */u/ > /o/ before /a/ and former */ǣ, ɔ̄̄/;
• Rule 16: root */ei/ > /ī/;
• Rule 17: final */ɔ̄̄/ > /ū/.

With Rule 15, the newly emerging [o] becomes a true phoneme /o/. The resulting vowel system for NwGmc is as follows.

NwGmc		Simple						Long						Diphthong
		Front		Mid		Back		Front		Mid		Back
High		/i/				/u/		/ī/				/ū/				/iu/
Mid		/e/				/o/		/ē/				/ō/				/eu/
Low				/a/						/ā/				/ai/		/au/

North Germanic (NGmc) continues the same system. It is distinguished from NwGmc by the loss of medial */w/ before /ū/ and the loss of medial */h/ before /t/.

46.2 Orthography

The origin of the runic symbols themselves is enigmatic. Various scholars assign their provenance to Greek, Latin, or Etruscan alphabets of the period. Suffice it to say that none of the arguments is conclusive. Three inscriptions preserve the complete alphabet, and a handful of others preserve an incomplete version. The order of the runes is almost completely uniform between inscriptions. From Old Norse (as well as Old English) poetry much later we find that the names of the individual runes were remembered acrophonically, each being associated with a common word beginning with that letter (much like 'a is for apple, b is for boy'). The names are clear from the Old Norse Rune Poem, but since this poem is of a much later date, after several sound changes had occured and letters had been reanalyzed, the names should not be applied naively to the runes of the earliest inscriptions. Appropriate names for the early period have been proposed by Wolfgang Krause, and these are supplied in the chart below for reference.

Rune		Transliteration		Name		Meaning
ᚠ		f		fehu		cattle, possessions
ᚢ		u		urūz		aurochs
ᚦ		þ		þurisaz		ogre
ᚨ		a		ansuz		god
ᚱ		r		raidō		journey, wagon
ᚲ		k		kaunan		sickness
ᚷ		g		gebō		gift
ᚹ		w		wunjō		joy
ᚺ		h		haglaz		hail
ᚾ		n		naudiz		tribulation
ᛁ		i		īsaz		ice
ᛃ		j		jēran		(good) year
ᛇ		ǣ		īwaz		yew tree
ᛈ		p		perþō		fruit tree
ᛉ		z (R)		algiz		elk
ᛊ		s		sōwilō		sun
ᛏ		t		Tīwaz		(a god's name)
ᛒ		b		berkanan		birch twig
ᛖ		e		ehwaz		horse
ᛗ		m		mannaz		person
ᛚ		l		laukaz		leek
ᛜ		ng		Ingwaz		(fertility god's name)
ᛞ		d		dagaz		day
ᛟ		o		ōþalan		inherited property

The first six letters provide the name of the alphabet, Futhark.

The consonants provide a good match for the phonological system of Northwest Germanic. The consonant system appears thus:

NwGmc		Labial		Dental		Palatal		Velar
Stops
voiceless		ᛈ /p/		ᛏ /t/				ᚲ /k/
voiced		ᛒ /b/		ᛞ /d/				ᚷ /g/
Fricatives
voiceless		ᚠ /f/		ᚦ /þ/				ᚺ /h/
Nasals		ᛗ /m/		ᚾ /n/				ᛜ [ng]
Affricates
voiceless				ᛊ /s/
voiced				ᛉ /z/
Apical Trill				ᚱ /r/
Lateral				ᛚ /l/
Glides		ᚹ /w/				ᛃ /j/

Note however the addition of ᛜ ng for [ng], which was not a distinct phoneme at the time, but rather an allophone of n before velars. The rune ᛉ z is often transcribed R. This highlights continuity with Old Norse, since by the time of ON the PGmc phoneme /z/ has rhotacized to /r/ in certain environments. Scholars often assume it passed through a stage where it was a voiced trill, akin to the r in the Czech name Dvorak. But it shows no alternation with ᚱ /r/ until the North Germanic period, and so for the earliest inscriptions it seems advisable to transcribe it with z.

If we similarly associate the vocalic runes with corresponding vowels in the phonemic system of NwGmc, we arrive at the following.

NwGmc		Simple						Long						Diphthong
		Front		Mid		Back		Front		Mid		Back
High		ᛁ /i/				ᚢ /u/		ᛁ /ī/				ᚢ /ū/				ᛁᚢ /iu/
Mid		ᛖ /e/				ᛟ /o/		ᛖ /ē/				ᛟ /ō/				ᛖᚢ /eu/
Low				ᚨ /a/						ᚨ /ā/				ᚨᛁ /ai/		ᚨᚢ /au/

This again gives good agreement with the vocalic system of NwGmc if we assume (1) the long vowels were not orthographically distinguished from their short counterparts, and (2) the diphthongs were represented as digraphs composed of their respective elements. The only problem comes with the rune ᛇ ǣ, which in this system is superfluous.

Some scholars suggest that the rune ᛇ ǣ represents a vowel with a value between /e/ and /i/. This is possible, but posits an orthographic representation for a sound not thought to be phonemic in the system proposed above for the inscriptions. A cleaner resolution to the problem comes if we revise the list of proposed phonemes and make the following assignments:

Phoneme		*/a/		*/ō/		*/ǣ/		*/u, ū/		*/i, ī/		*/e/
Rune		ᚨ		ᛟ		ᛇ		ᚢ		ᛁ		ᛖ

In this system only /i/ and /u/ use common runes for the long and short variants. In the system of PGmc, these were the only phonemic long/short pairs. Thus this assignment follows the same assumptions (1) and (2) above, but removes the superfluous nature of the ᛇ ǣ rune. Under this interpretation, moreover, it is apparent that the development and use of runes actually occured in the Proto-Germanic period, before the advent of Northwest Germanic.

When the change PGmc */ǣ/ > /ā/ occured in root syllables, then ᚨ a was used to represent /ā/, in accordance with the runic use for u and i. Since the runes had been developed in the PGmc period, the shift PGmc */ai/ > */æ/ in unstressed position provided an alternate spelling ᚨᛁ ai for */ǣ/. Yet another spelling of */ǣ/ was ᛖ e. This arose from the shift of unstressed */ǣ/ > /ē/, and the use of ᛖ e to represent both long and short variants of /e/ in a similar fashion to /u/, /i/, and now /a/.

Similar variance arose in the use of runic ᛟ o. The development */au/ > */ɔ̄̄/ allowed ᚨᚢ au to alternate with ᛟ o. */ɔ̄̄/ subsequently became */ō/, now spelled ᛟ o. When a-umlaut of */u/ produced [o], then ᛟ o was used for this as well, akin to the usage of /u/, /i/, /a/, and /e/.

The runes ᛃ j and ᚨ a were acrophonically denoted jǣran (note the chart above writes jēran, since the spellings are based on the earlier proposal of a phoneme system lacking /ǣ/) and ansuz, respectively. With loss of initial PGmc */j/, ᛃ j became the āra-rune, and the acrophonic principle allowed this to alternate with ᚨ a in representing /ā, a/. In this setting, the āra-rune (formerly j) is transliterated A.

46.3 Orthographic Features

The above shifts in the phonemic system, and the resulting orthographic shifts, often lead to difficulty interpreting the runic inscriptions. In addition, other conventions were followed which further obscure the nature of the inscriptions. The following are the more important features found in the inscriptions.

• F 1: NwGmc /ē/ is often spelled -ai.
• F 2: Nasals are frequently not written before homorganic obstruents. This may either be omission of an expressed nasal, or convention for transcribing a nasalized vowel.
• F 3: ng is not always used to represent /ng/.
• F 4: Double consonants are often represented by a single graph, even across word boundaries.
• F 5: After /s/ some voiced consonants are written with the unvoiced symbol.
• F 6: An epenthetic vowel -- variously represented by a, e, or A -- often occurs between consecutive consonants.
• F 7: Certain North Germanic inscriptions differentiate a and A, using a for a nasalized or epenthetic vowel.
• F 8: A may continue its original /j/ value in noninitial position.

47 Runic Declension

Runic inscriptions are rare enough, and limited enough in scope, so as to make reconstruction of complete morphological paradigms difficult. The paradigms below list those forms which occur in the dialects under discussion, as well as their reconstructed antecedents.

47.1 Declension of Vocalic Stems

The inscriptions so far uncovered do not allow one to construct full nominal paradigms. From the material available, we may list the endings of the *o-, *yo-, *wo-stems as given below. The masculine declension has the following endings.

Masculine		PIE		PGmc		NwGmc		NGmc		ENord. & WNord.
N Sg.		*-o-s		*-a-z		-a-z		-a-z		-z/-r/-zero
A		*-o-m		*-a-n		-a		-a		-a
G		*-o-s		*-a-s		-a-s				-s
D		*-o-y		*-a-i		-ē		-ē
N Pl.		*-o-es		*-a-ez		-ē-z				-ā-z
A		*-o-ns		*-a-nz						-ā
G		*-o-ōm		*-a-ɔ̄̄n		-ō
D		*-o-ms		*-a-mz						-umz

Note from the columns for NwGmc and NGmc that these correspond to the a-, ja-, wa-stems of Section 3.1. The neuter declension is as follows.

Neuter		PIE		PGmc		NwGmc		NGmc		ENord. & WNord.
N Sg.		*-o-m		*-a-n		-a
A		*-o-m		*-a-n		-a		-a
G
D		*-o-y		*-a-i		-ē
N Pl.		*-ā		*-ɔ̄̄		-ū
A
G
D

The *ā-, *yā-, *wā-stems are all feminine. Their declension is as follows.

Feminine		PIE		PGmc		NwGmc		NGmc		ENord.
N Sg.		*-ā		*-ɔ̄̄		-ū		-ū		-zero
A		*-ā-m		*-ɔ̄̄-n		-ō
G
D		*-ā-y		*-ɔ̄̄-i		-ū		-ū		-ū
N Pl.		*-ā-s		*-ɔ̄̄-z		-ō-z
A		*-ā-s		*-ɔ̄̄-z		-ō-z		-ō-z		-ā-z
G		*-ā-ōm		*-ɔ̄̄-ɔ̄̄n						-ā
D

These correspond to the ō-, jō-, wō-stems of Section 3.2.

The *y-stems have fewer attested forms. From those that occur, we have the following declension.

*y-Stem		PIE		PGmc		NwGmc		NGmc		ENord.
N Sg.		*-y-s		*-i-z		-i-z
A		*-y-m		*-i-n		-i		-i
G		*-ey-es		*-ej-ez		-ī-z
D		*-oy-i		*-aj-i		-ē
N Pl.
A
G
D		*-y-ms		*-i-mz						-umz

The *w-stems are rarer still. They are attested only in the singular. The endings are given below.

*w-Stem		PIE		PGmc		NwGmc		NGmc		ENord.
Masc. (Neut.)
N Sg.		*-w-s (*-w-m)		*-u-z (*-u-n)		-u-z (-u)		(-u)
A		*-w-m		*-u-n		-u
G		*-ow-es		*-aw-ez		-ō-z
D		*-ew/ow-i		*-ew/aw-i		-ō		-iu		-iu

47.2 Declension of Consonant Stems

In general consonant stems occur less frequently than other types of nouns. The declension of *ōn-, *yōn-stems is as follows.

*ōn-, *yōn-Stem		PIE		PGmc		NwGmc		NGmc		ENord.
Masc. (Fem.)
N Sg.		*-ōn		*-ɔ̄̄n		-a (-ō)		-a (-ā)		-a (-ā)
A
G		*-on-es		*-an-ez		-an (-ōn)
D		*-on-y		*-an-i		-an
G Pl.		*-on-ōm		*-an-ɔ̄̄n		-an-ō

Only the genitive is attested in the plural of these stems. Other consonant stems exhibit even fewer forms. The forms of nouns ending in *r or root consonant are given below.

		*r-Stem								Root Cons.
		PIE		PGmc		NwGmc				PIE		PGmc		NwGmc
N Sg.		*-er		*-er		-ar				*-s		*-z		-z
N Pl.		*-r-es		*-r-ez		-r-iz

47.3 Pronominal Declension

In the inscriptions discovered thus far, only a handful of pronouns actually occur. They are either first person or third person pronouns. The forms are as follows.

Pronouns		NwGmc		NGmc		ENord.
1st Pers.
N Sg.		ek, ik, -eka, -ika		ek, ik, eka, -ka		-æka, -æk
D		mēz
N Pl.		wīz
3rd Pers.
Masc.
N Sg.						sa, saz
Neut.
A Sg.		it				þat

The forms preceded by a hyphen are enclitic. A few forms of adjectives occur with pronominal endings. These are given below.

Adjectives		NwGmc		NGmc
Masc.
A Sg.		hinō, mīninō
Neut.
A Sg.				þat

48 Runic Verbal Conjugation

As with nominal forms, only a small number of the possible verb forms actually occur in the extant inscriptions. In the present tense, only singular forms occur. In the past tense both singular and plural forms are attested, though not for the second person. The second person only exhibits singular imperative forms. In addition forms of both present and past participles are found. The forms of strong verbs, as well as those with irregular conjugation, are as follows.

Verbs		Strong						Irregular
		PGmc		NwGmc		ENord		PGmc		NwGmc		ENord
Present
1 Sg.		*-ɔ̄̄		-ū				*-mi/ai		-m/ē
2								*-ī-z		-ī-z
3		*-e-di		-id		-r		*-ti		-t		-z
Past
1 Sg.		*-a		-a
3		*-e		-		-
1 Pl.		*-(u)me		-um
3
Imperative
2 Sg.		*-(i)j-e		-ī
Pres. Ptc.
Past Ptc.		*-in-		-in-

Among the irregular verbs is 'be', with first singular form em. The present 1 sg. ending, when a vowel, is usually deleted when followed by the first person pronoun, e.g. hait-eka < haitē eka. The ENord 3 sg. ending -r is borrowed from the 2 sg.

The forms of the weak verb conjugations are listed below.

Verbs		Weak I						Weak II				Weak III
		PGmc		NwGmc		NGmc		PGmc		NwGmc		PGmc		NwGmc
Present
1 Sg.		*-(i)j-ɔ̄̄		-j-				*-ɔ̄̄-n		-ō
2
3
Past
1 Sg.		*-ɔ̄̄-n		-ō		-ō
3		*-ǣ-d		-ē		-ē
1 Pl.
3		*-und		-un
Imperative
2 Sg.		*-ej-e		-ī								*-ǣ		-ē
Pres. Ptc.												*-and-		-and-
Past Ptc.		*-id-		-id-

49 Runic Syntax

There is still a great deal of debate concerning what exactly can be gleaned from the runic inscriptions concerning early Germanic syntax. Syntactic patterns, e.g. placement of certain types of words, obviously depends on the interpretation of given inscriptions, and often there is nothing approaching complete consensus. Nevertheless it is important to notice some general trends, however tentative their status may be.

49.1 Adjectives and Modifiers

Adjectives can precede or follow the noun they modify. The unmarked position appears to be before the noun. Preposed adjectives complete the sense of the noun, while postposed adjectives serve to make a contrast. The only example, however, of a preposed descriptive adjective is a predicate use: leubu mez |: wage: | birgnggu boro swestar minu 'Dear to me, (Wāgaz) Birgingū, (is) Borō, my sister' (Opedal stone). The adjective leubū is presumably descriptive ('she is my sister, and I of course love her'), not contrastive ('this sister I love, not the other one'). If it is true that postposed adjectives mark a contrast, then runo fahi raginakudo tojeka 'I prepare a suitable, divinely-descended rune' (Noleby stone) contrasts the rūnō in question with other runes. The adjective fahi 'suitable' clearly serves this function, and by implication these raginakundō runes are also contrasted with other, less-than-divine runes. (Note, however, that some scholars interpret fahi as 'I paint', and then there is no postposed adjective to speak of.)

There seems to be no correlation between strong/weak adjective endings and adjective placement: postposed adjectives may be strong or weak, and similarly for preposed adjectives. The strong adjective denotes a quality which is not a lasting attribute of the noun it modifies. With this interpretation, the postposed raginakundō suggests that divine authority was not a property of all runes.

Attributive genitives may precede or follow the noun they modify. For example, magoz minas staina 'my son's stone' (Vetteland stone), as opposed to þewaz godagas 'servant of Gōdagaz' (Valsfjord cliff). In general, the genitive precedes an inanimate noun, but follows an animate noun.

Pronominal modifiers generally follow the head noun. For example, magoz minas 'my son's' (Vetteland stone), swestar minu 'my sister' (Opedal stone). There is one example of a noun with demonstrative pronoun, which fits the same pattern: hali hino 'this flat-stone' (Strøm whetstone).

49.2 Verb Placement and Word Order

Verbs in the imperative are generally placed first: wate hali hino horna haha skaþi haþu ligi 'Wet this stone, horn! Scathe, scythe! Lie, that which is mown down!' (Strøm whetstone). A few inscriptions show other verb forms in initial position, one in second position, but the dominant pattern of the NwGmc inscriptions is for the verb to be in final position: ...dagastiz runo faihido '(I), ...-dagastiz, painted the rune' (Einang stone). The inscriptions of the most archaic period show a distinct tendency toward SOV word order, with VO in imperative statements.

In the North Germanic period, word order undergoes a shift. Most of the NGmc inscriptions show a medial position for the verb: ekA sigimArAz Afs[A]kA rAisidokA stAinA 'I, Sigimāraz, one found free of guilt, raised the stone' (Ellestad stone). The basic word order has become SVO.

50 Inscriptions

Below are a few runic inscriptions. The last belongs to the NGmc period, but the remaining belong to NwGmc. They are listed in rough chronological order. First the inscription is given, then it is separated into words, and following there is a brief analysis and translation.

(1) Nølving clasp, Denmark, 200 AD: bidawarijaztalgidai In words: bidawarijaz talgidai.

• bīd-a-: Compare Goth. beidan 'wait', OE bīdan 'bide'. PGmc */beid-a-/ < PIE */bheydh-o-/. Cf. Lat. fīdus 'loyal.
• -war-ij-az: nom. sg. masc. yo-stem. Compare Goth. warjan, OE werian 'defend'. PGmc */war-ja-z/ < PIE */wor-yo-s/. Cf. Skt. varūtā 'protector.
• talgidai = talg-i-d-ē: 3 sg. past, weak I, 'carved'. Compare OIc. telgja 'to carve'. PGmc */talg-i-d-ǣ-d/ < PIE */dol-gh-/. Cf. Lat. dolāre 'to hew'.

Translation: 'Bīdawarijaz [i.e. protector of the oath] carved (this).'

(2) Vimose chape, Denmark, 250-300 AD: (A) makija (B I) marida (B II) iala In words: makija maridai ala.

• māk-ija: acc. sg. masc. yo-stem, 'sword'. Compare Goth. meki, OE mēce 'sword'. PGmc */mǣk-ija-n/ < Pre-Gmc */mēg-yo-m/.
• maridai = mār-i-dē: 3 sg. past, weak I, 'decorated' or 'made famous'
• ala = all-a: nom. sg. masc. ɔ̄̄n-stem. Compare Goth. Alla, OIc. Alli. PGmc */all-ɔ̄̄n/ < PIE */aln-ōn/. Cf. Lat. allers 'learned'.

Translation: 'Alla decorated the sword.'

(3) Kragehul spearshaft, Denmark, 300 AD: ekerilazasugisalasemuhahaiteagagagginuaghe... lija... hagalawijubig... In words: ek erilaz asugislas em uha haite ag ag ag ginu ag he... lija... hagala wijubig...

• ek: nom. sg. 1st person pron., 'I'. Compare Goth. ik, OE ic. PGmc */ek, ekan/ < PIE */eg, egom, egō/. Cf. Lat. egō 'I'.
• er-il-a-z: nom. sg. masc. o-stem, etymology obscure.
• asu = ansu-: Compare Goth. ansis 'demigods', OIc. ass 'god'. PGmc */ans-u-/ < PIE */ans-w-/. Cf. Skt. asu-ra- 'lord'.
• -gīs(a)l-a-s: nom. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare OE, OIc gīsl 'hostage'. PGmc */geisl-a-s/ < PIE */gheys-l-o-s/. Cf. OIr. gīall.
• em: 1 sg. pres. 'am'. Compare Goth. im, OE ēom < PGmc */ez-mi/ < PIE */es-my/. Cf. Skt. asmi 'am'.
• ūh-a: nom. sg. masc. ōn-stem. Compare OE ŷmest. PGmc */ūh-ɔ̄̄n/ < PIE */ūk-ōn/. Cf. OPr. u(c)ka- 'high'.
• hait-ē: 1 sg. pres. mid. 'am called'. Compare Goth. haita < PGmc */hait-ai/ < PIE */koy-d-ay/. Cf. Lat. cieō 'call upon'.
• a = a(u-ja): acc. sg. neut. yo-stem 'protection'. Compare OIc. ey 'luck'. PGmc. */au-ja-n/ < PIE */aw-yo-m/. Cf. Av. avaiti 'helps'.
• g = g(ebū): 1 sg. pres., strong V, 'I give'. Compare Goth. giba. PGmc */geb-ɔ̄̄/ < PIE */ghebh-ō/. Cf. Lat. habēre 'have'.
• ginu = ginn-u-: Compare OIc. ginn-heilagr 'very holy', OE ginn 'broad'. PGmc */ginn-u-/ < PIE */ghy-n-w-/. Cf. Lat. hiō 'yawn'.
• hag(a)l-a: nom. or acc. sg. neut. o-stem. Compare OIc. hagl 'hail'. PGmc */hagl-a-n/ < PIE */kagh-l-o-m/. Cf. Gk. kákhlēx 'pebbles'.

Translation: 'I am the erilaz of Ansugīs(a)laz. I am called Ūha. I give protection, I give protection, I give protection, I give mighty protection... hail...'

(4) Vetteland stone, Norway, 350 AD: (I) ... flagdafaikinazist (II) ... magozminasstaina (III) ... dazfaihido In words: ...flagdafaikinaz ist... magoz minas staina... daz faihido.

• flagd-a-: Compare OHG fluohhan 'to curse', OE flōcan 'to strike'. PGmc */flagd-a-/ < PIE */pləg-dh-o-/. Cf. Lat. plāga 'blow'.
• -faik-in-a-z: nom. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare OE fācen 'deceit'. PGmc */faik-in-a-z/ < PIE */poyg-yn-o-s/. Cf. Lat. piget 'vexes'.
• is-t: 3 sg. pres. 'is'. Compare Goth. ist. PGmc */es-ti/ < PIE */es-ty/. Cf. Gk. estí 'is'.
• mag-ō-z: gen. sg. masc. w-stem, 'son's'. Compare Goth. magus 'son, youth'. PGmc */mag-aw-ez/ < PIE */mag-ow-es/. Cf. OIr. maug 'servant'.
• mīn-a-s: gen. sg. masc. o-stem, 'my'. Compare Goth. meins. PGmc */mein-a-s/ < PIE */me-y-n-o-s/. Cf. Gk. moí 'to me'.
• stain-a: acc. sg. masc. o-stem, 'stone'. Compare Goth. stains. PGmc */stain-a-n/ < PIE */stoy-n-o-m/. Cf. Skt. styāyate 'hardens'.
• ...d-a-z: nom. sg. masc. o-stem, proper name.
• faih-i-dō: 1 sg. past, weak I, 'I painted'. Compare OE fāgian 'to color'. PGmc */faih-i-dɔ̄̄n/ < PIE */poyk-y-dh-o-m/. Cf. Lat. pictor 'painter'.

Translation: '... is subject to deceitful attack... my son's stone [acc.]... (I), ...-daz, painted.'

(5) Opedal stone, Norway, 350 AD: leubumez : wage : birgngguboroswestarminu In words: leubu mez : wage : birgnggu boro swestar minu.

• leub-ū: nom. sg. fem. ā-stem, 'dear'. Compare Goth. liuba, OE lēof. PGmc */leub-ɔ̄̄/ < PIE */lewbh-ā/. Cf. Lat. lubens 'gladly'.
• mēz: dat. sg. 1st person pron., 'to me'. Compare Goth. mis. PGmc */mez/ < PIE */me-s/. Cf. Gk. me 'me'.
• wāg-ē: dat. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare Goth. wegs 'storm', OE wǣg 'rough water'. PGmc */wǣg-a-i/ < PIE */wēgh-o-y/. Cf. Gk. ókhos 'wagon'.
• birgnggu = birg-ing-ū: dat. sg. fem. ā-stem. Compare Goth. bairgan, OE beorgan 'save, recover'. PGmc */berg-ing-ɔ̄̄-i/ < PIE */bhergh-enk(w)-ā-i/. Cf. Lith. birginti 'save'.
• bor-ō: nom. sg. fem. ōn-stem. Compare Goth. baur, OIc. burr 'son'. PGmc */bur-ɔ̄̄n/ < PIE */bhr-ōn/. Cf. Lat. ferō 'carry'.
• swest-ar: nom. sg. fem. consonant stem. Compare Goth. swistar, OE sweostor. PGmc */swest-ǣr/ < PIE */swe-sor-m/. Cf. Lat. soror 'sister'.
• mīn-ū: nom. sg. fem. ā-stem. PGmc */mein-ɔ̄̄/, see (4) above.

Translation: 'Dear to me, /Wāgaz/ Birgingū, (is) Borō my sister.'

(6) Gallehus gold horn, Denmark, 400 AD: ekhlewagastiz : holtijaz : horna : tawido : In words: ek hlewagastiz holtijaz horna tawido.

• ek: see (3) above.
• hle-wa-: Compare OE hlēow, OIc. hlē 'lee, protection'. PGmc */hle-wa-/ < PIE */kl-ewo-/ (cf. Lat. cliēns 'bondsman') or */klew-o-/ (cf. Gk. klé(w)os 'fame').
• -gastiz: nom. sg. masc. y-stem. Compare Goth. gasts, OIc. gestr 'guest'. PGmc */gast-i-z/ < PIE */ghost-y-s/. Cf. Lat. hostis 'stranger'.
• holt-ija-z: nom. sg. masc. yo-stem, patronymic formed from *Holta-gastiz. Compare OE holt 'wood'. PGmc */hult-ija-z/ < PIE */kl-d-yo-s/. Cf. Gk. kladós 'twig'.
• horn-a: acc. sg. neut. o-stem 'horn'. Compare Goth. haurn 'horn'. PGmc */hurn-a-n/ < PIE */kr-n-o-m/. Cf. Lat. cornu 'horn'.
• taw-i-dō: 1 sg. past, weak I, 'I made'. Compare Goth. tawida 'did, made', OE tawode 'prepared'. PGmc */taw-i-dɔ̄̄n/ < PIE */dow-y-dh-o-m/. Cf. OIr. doid 'executes, takes care of'.

Translation: 'I, Hlewagastiz [i.e. protected or famous guest], son of Holtagastiz, made the horn.'

(7) Ro stone, Sweden, 400 AD: (I) swabaharjaz (II) sairawidaz (III) ... stainawarijazfahido (IV) ekhrazazsatido[s]tain[a] ana... r... In words: swabaharjaz sairawidaz [ek] stainawarijaz fahido ek hrazaz satido [s]tain[a] ana... r....

• swāb-a-: Compare OHG Swābā 'Swabians'. PGmc */swǣb-a-/ < PIE */swē-bh-o-/. Cf. Skt. sabhā 'assembly'.
• -har-ja-z: nom. sg. masc. yo-stem. Compare Goth. harjis, OE here 'army'. PGmc */har-yo-s/ < PIE */kor-yo-s/. Cf. OPers kāra- 'army'.
• sair-a-: Compare Goth. sair, OE sār 'sore, wound'. PGmc */sair-a-/ < PIE */say-r-o-/. Cf. Lat. saevus 'enraged'.
• -wīd-a-z: nom. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare OE wīd, OIc. víðr 'wide'. PGmc */wīd-a-z/ < PIE */wī-t-o-s/. Cf. Lat. vītāre 'avoid'.
• [ek]: see (3) above.
• stain-a-: see (4) above.
• war-ija-z: see (1) above.
• fahido = faih-i-dō: See (4) above. i omitted, or perhaps showing a change ai > ā, though saira suggests not. Alternately a 'modern' spelling, as with (10) below.
• hraz-a-z: nom. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare OS hrōrian, OE hrǣran 'stir'. PGmc */hraz-a-z/ < PIE */krə-s-o-s/. Cf. Gk. krātēr 'mixing jug'.
• sat-i-dō: 1 sg. past, weak I, 'I set'. Compare Goth. satida, OE sette 'set'. PGmc */sat-i-dɔ̄̄-n/ < PIE */sod-ey-dh-o-m/. Cf. Skt. sādayati 'sets'.
• stain-[a]: see (4) above.
• an(-a): prep. 'on'. (Final a may belong to the following word.)

Translation: 'Swābaharjaz [i.e. war-leader of one's people] with gaping wound. (I), Stainawarijaz [i.e. defender of stone], painted (it). I, Hrazaz [i.e. the agile one], set the stone on...'.

(8) Tune stone, Norway, 400 AD: (A I) ekwiwazafter woduri (A II) dewitadahalaiban : worahto (B I) [me]zwoduride : staina (B II) þrijozdohtrizdalidun (B III) arbijarjostezarbijano In words: ek wiwaz after woduride witadahalaiban worahto. [me]z woduride staina þrijoz dohtriz dalidun arbijarjostez arbijano.

• ek: see (3) above.
• wī-wa-z: nom. sg. masc. wo-stem. Compare Goth. waihsta 'nook', OE wicga 'beetle', OIc. víkva 'give way, turn'. PGmc */weyg-wa-z/ < PIE */weyk-wo-s/. Cf. Skt. vejati 'retreats'.
• after: prep. Compare OE æfter, OIc. eptir. PGmc */af-ter-a-/ < PIE */op-ter-o-/. Cf. Gk. opísō 'to the back'.
• wōd-u-: root consonant stem. Compare Goth. wōþs, OE wōd 'furious'. PGmc */wɔ̄̄d-/ < PIE */wāt-/. Cf. Lat. vātēs 'god-inspired singer'.
• -rīd-ē: dat. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare OE rīdan, OIc. ríða 'to ride'. PGmc */reid-a-i/ < PIE */reydh-o-y/. Cf. OIr. rīadaim 'travel'.
• witada- = wit-and-a-: Compare Goth. witan 'to watch', OE bewitian 'observe'. PGmc */wit-and-a-/ < PIE */wyd-ənt-o-/. Cf. Lat. videō 'see'.
• h(a)laib-an: dat. sg. masc. ōn-stem. Compare Goth. gahlaiba 'fellow, i.e. bread-sharer', Goth. hlaifs 'loaf, bread'. PGmc */hlaib-on-i/ < PIE */kloybh-on-y/. Cf. Gk. klíbanos 'dish for baking bread'.
• wor(a)h-tō: 1 sg. pres., weak I, 'I wrought'. Compare Goth. waurhta, OE worhte 'wrought'. PGmc */wurh-tɔ̄̄-n/ < PIE */wrg-t-ɔ̄̄-m/. Cf. Gk. érgon 'work'.
• [mē]z: see (5) above.
• stain-a: see (4) above.
• þri-jō-z: nom. pl. fem. yā-stem, 'three'. Compare OS thrīa, OIc. þrjár 'three'. PGmc */þre-jɔ̄̄-z/ < PIE */trey-ā-s/. Cf. Lat. trēs 'three'.
• doht-r-iz: nom. pl. fem. consonant stem, 'daughters'. Compare OS dohter, OE dohtor 'daughter'. PGmc */duht-er-ez/ < PIE */dwghə-ter-es/. Cf. Gk. thugátēr 'daughter'.
• dāl-i-d-un: 3 pl. past, weak I, 'prepared'. Compare OIc. dæll 'adaptable'. PGmc */dǣl-i-d-nd/ < PIE */dhel-/. Cf. OCS dēlati 'to treat, work'.
• arb-ij-: (Final vowel lost before following vowel.) Compare Goth. arbi, OE ierfe 'inheritance'. PGmc */arb-ija-/ < PIE */orbh-yo-/. Cf. Lat. orbus 'bereaved'.
• -ar-jōst-ēz: gen. pl. masc., superlative of */ar-ja-z/. PGmc */ar-jɔ̄̄st-a-ez/ < PIE */ar-yōst-o-es/. Cf. Gk. áristos 'the best'.
• arb-ijan-ō: gen. pl. masc. yōn-stem, 'of heirs'. Compare Goth. arbjane, OE ierfena 'of heirs'. PGmc */arb-ijan-ɔ̄̄n/ < PIE */orbh-yon-ōm/. See arbij- above.

Translation: 'I, Wīwaz [i.e. the darting one], wrought (the inscription) after [i.e. in commemoration of] Wōdurīdaz [i.e. furious rider], the lord [i.e. bread-ward]. For me, Wōdurīdaz, three daughters, the most legitimate-to-inherit of heirs, prepared the stone.'

(9) Noleby stone, Sweden, 450 AD: (I) runofahiraginakudotojeka (II) unaþou : suhurah : susiehhwatin (III) hakuþo In words: runo fahi raginakudo tojeka unaþou suhurah susieh hwatin hakuþo.

• rūn-ō: acc. sg. fem. ā-stem, 'rune'. Compare Goth. rūna 'secret', OE rūn 'secret, consultation'. PGmc */rūn-ɔ̄̄-n/ < PIE */rūn-ā-m/. Cf. Lat. rūmor 'noise, rumor'.
• fah-i: acc. sg. fem. y-stem, 'suitable'. Compare Goth. faheþs 'joy', fagrs 'suitable'. PGmc */fah-i-n/ < PIE */pak-y-m/. Cf. Umbr. pacer 'favorable'.
• rag-in-a-: Compare Goth. ragin 'counsel', OE regn- 'determined by fate', OIc. regin 'ruling gods'. PGmc */rag-in-a-/ < PIE */rok-yn-o-/. Cf. regō 'direct'.
• -kudo = kund-ō: acc. sg. fem. ā-stem. Compare Goth. -kunda, OE -cunde 'descent, lineage'. PGmc */kund-ɔ̄̄-n/ < PIE */gn-t-ā-m/. Cf. Lat. (g)nātus 'born'.
• tōj-: 1 sg. pres., weak I, 'prepare'. Compare Goth. taujan 'do', OE towian 'prepare'. PGmc */tɔ̄̄(w)-(i)j-/ < PIE */dō(w)-y-/. Cf. Gk. daíō 'burn'.
• -eka: see (3) above.
• hak-u-þ-ō: dat. sg. masc. w-stem. Compare OS hacud, OE hacod 'pike (fish)'. PGmc */hak-u-þ-aw-i/ < PIE */kog-w-t-ow-i/. Cf. OCS socha 'cudgel'.

Translation: 'I prepare the suitable divine rune... for Hakuþuz [i.e. the crooked one].'

(10) Stentoften stone, Sweden, 600-650 AD (NGmc): (I) niuhAborumz (II) niuhagestumz (III) hAþuwolAfzgAfj (IV) hAriwolAfzmAg * usnuh * e (V) hidezrunonofelAhekAhederAginoronoz (VI) herAmAlAsAzArAgeuwelAdudsAþAtbAriutiþ In words: ni uhA borumz ni uha gestumz hAþuwolAfz gAf j hAriwolAfz mAg[i]u snuh * e hidezruno no felAhekA hederA ginoronoz herAmAlAs Az ArAgeu welAduds sA þAt bAriutiþ.

• nī: separable negative particle, 'not'. Compare Goth. nei 'not', OIc. ní 'no'. PGmc */nei/ < PIE */ney/. Cf. Lat. nī 'so that not'.
• ūh-a: see (3) above.
• bor-umz: dat. pl. masc. o-stem (ending from consonant and w-stems), 'to the sons'. PGmc */bur-a-mz/. See (5) above.
• gestumz = gæst-umz: dat. pl. masc. y-stem (ending from consonant and w-stems), 'to the guests'. PGmc */gast-i-mz/. See (6) above.
• hAþu- = hǫþ-u-: Compare OE headu- 'battle'. PGmc */haþ-u-/ < PIE */kot-w-/. Cf. Gk. kótos 'anger'.
• -wolAfz = wul(a)f-z: nom. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare Goth. wulfs, OE wulf 'wolf'. PGmc */wulf-a-z/ < PIE */wlkw-o-s/. Cf. Gk. lúkos 'wolf'.
• gaf: 3 sg. past, strong V, 'gave'. Compare Goth. gaf, OE geaf 'gave'. PGmc */gab-e/ < PIE */ghobh-e/. See (3) above.
• j = āra: 'good harvest'.
• hAri- = hær-i-: see (7) above.
• -wolAfz = wul(a)f-z: see above.
• mag[i]u = mæg[i]u: dat. sg. masc. w-stem. PGmc */mag-ew-i/. See (4) above.
• hidez- = hæd(e)r-: 'bright'. Compare OE hādor 'brightness', OIc. heiðr 'clear'. PGmc */haidr-/ < PIE */(s)kəy-tr-o-/. Cf. Skt. citra- 'clear'.
• -runo = -rūn-ā: gen. pl. fem. ā-stem, 'of... runes'. PGmc */run-ɔ̄̄-ɔ̄̄n/ < PIE */run-ā-ōm/. See (9) above.
• no = runu: (copying error) dat. sg. fem. ā-stem, 'sequence'. Compare OIc. runi 'run, river', OE rinnan 'flow'. PGmc */run-ɔ̄̄-i/ < PIE */r-n-ā-y/. Cf. Lat. orior 'arise'.
• felAh- = fæl(a)h-: 1 sg. pres., strong III (with loss of ending before enclitic pron.), 'commit'. Compare Goth. filha, OE fēole 'hide, transfer'. PGmc */felh-ɔ̄̄/ < PIE */pel-k-ō/. Cf. OPr. pelkis 'cloak'.
• -ekA = -æk-a: nom. sg. 1st person enclitic pron, 'I'. See (3) above.
• hederA = hæd(e)ra: adv. 'here'. Compare Goth. hidre, OE hider 'hither'. PGmc */hi-dra-n/ < PIE */ky-tro-m/. Cf. Lat. citrā 'on this side'.
• gino- = ginn(a)-: see (3) above.
• -ronoz = rūn-ā-z: acc. pl. fem. ā-stem. PGmc */rūn-ɔ̄̄-z/. See (9) above.
• herAmA- = hjær(a)m(a)-: Compare OHG skerm 'cover, shield', OS (bi)skirmian 'protect'. PGmc */herm-a-/ < PIE */(s)ker-m-o-/. Cf. Lat. corium 'leather'.
• -lAs = -løs: nom. sg. masc. o-stem. Compare Goth. -laus, OE -lēas '-less, without'. PGmc */-laus-a-z/ < PIE */low-s-o-s/. Cf. Gk. lúō 'dissolve'.
• Az = æz: 3 sg. pres. (levelled from 2 sg.), 'is'. Compare Goth. is, OIc. es. PGmc (2 sg.) */es(-i)/ < PIE */es(-i)/. Cf. Lat. es.
• ArAgeu = ær(a)g-iū: dat. sg. fem. yā-stem, 'through baseness'. Compare OE earg 'cowardly', OIc. ergi 'baseness'. PGmc */arg-ijɔ̄̄-i/ < PIE */orgh-yā-y/. Cf. Gk. orkhein 'swing, move'.
• welA- = wǣl(a)-: Compare OIc. véla 'deceive', OE wigol 'pertaining to soothsaying'. PGmc */wihl-a-/ < PIE */wyk-l-o-/. Cf. Lat. victima 'sacrifice'.
• -duds = -døds: gen. sg. masc. o-stem 'of death'. Compare Goth. dauþaus, OE dēaðes 'death's'. PGmc */dauþ-a-s/ < PIE */dhow-t-o-s/. Cf. Lat. fūnus 'funeral'.
• sa: nom. sg. masc. demonstrative pron., 'he'. Compare Goth. sa, OE se. PGmc */s-a/ < PIE */s-o/. Cf. Gk. ho 'he, the'.
• þat: acc. sg. neut. demonstrative pron., 'this'. Compare Goth. þat-a, OE þæt 'that, the'. PGmc */þa-t/ < PIE */to-d/. Cf. Lat. is-tud 'this'.
• bAriutiþ = b(a)rŷtiþ 3 sg. pres., strong II, 'breaks'. Compare OIc. brýtr 'breaks', OE brīett 'destroys'. PGmc */breut-e-di/ < PIE */bhrew-d-e-ty/. Cf. Skt. bhrūnam 'embryo'.

Translation: 'Not Ūha to the sons [i.e. natives], not Ūha to the guests [i.e. non-natives], (but) Hǫþuwul(a)fz gave good harvest. Hæriwul(a)fz (to?) his son... The sequence of bright-runes I commit here [i.e. to this stone], mighty-runes. Protectionless through [i.e. because of] baseness, (in possession) of an insidious death is he (who) breaks this.'

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