Indo-European Lexicon
PIE Etymon and IE Reflexes
Below we display: a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) etymon adapted from Pokorny, with our own English gloss; our Semantic Field assignment(s) for the etymon, linked to information about the field(s); an optional Comment; and Reflexes (derived words) in various Indo-European languages, organized by family/group in west-to-east order where Germanic is split into West/North/East families and English, our language of primary emphasis, is artificially separated from West Germanic. IE Reflexes appear most often as single words with any optional letter(s) enclosed in parentheses; but alternative full spellings are separated by '/' and "principal parts" appear in a standard order (e.g. masculine, feminine, and neuter forms) separated by commas.
Reflexes are annotated with: Part-of-Speech and/or other Grammatical feature(s); a short Gloss which, especially for modern English reflexes, may be confined to the oldest sense; and some Source citation(s) with 'LRC' always understood as editor. Keys to PoS/Gram feature abbreviations and Source codes appear below the reflexes; at the end are links to the previous/next etyma [in Pokorny's alphabetic order] that have reflexes.
All reflex pages are currently under active construction; as time goes on, corrections may be made and/or more etyma & reflexes may be added.
Pokorny Etymon: 2. (s)kel- 'to owe, be guilty'
Semantic Field(s): to Owe, Fault, Guilt
Indo-European Reflexes:
| Family/Language | Reflex(es) | PoS/Gram. | Gloss | Source(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | ||||
| Old English: | sculan, sceal, sculon, scolde | vb.ptpr.IV | shall, ought to | LRC |
| scyld(u) | n.fem | sin, guilt; debt, duty, what is owed | ASD/GED | |
| Middle English: | shal | vb.mod | shall | W7 |
| English: | shall | vb.mod | must, will have to | AHD/W7 |
| West Germanic | ||||
| Old Frisian: | skela | vb.mod | should | GED |
| skelde, schild, schuld | n | debt, duty, what is owed | ASD/GED | |
| skila, skal, skilun, skolde | vb.ptpr | to owe; shall, must | ASD | |
| Dutch: | zal | vb.mod.1/3.sg | shall, am/is going to | TLL |
| zoude | vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret | would; was going to | TLL | |
| Old Saxon: | skolan | vb.mod | should | GED |
| skulan, skal, skulun, skolda | vb.ptpr | to owe; shall, must | ASD | |
| skuld | n | debt, duty, what is owed | GED | |
| Old Low German: | sculd | n | guilt; debt | ASD |
| Old High German: | scal | vb.mod | shall, must, ought to | W7 |
| scalto | vb.ptc | dedicated | GED | |
| scolan, scal, sculumes, scolta | vb.ptpr | to owe; shall, must | ASD | |
| sculd(a) | n.str.fem | debt, duty, what is owed | GED | |
| scult | vb.pres.ptc | owing | GED | |
| s(k)ulan | vb.mod | should | GED | |
| Middle High German: | soln | vb.mod | should | GED |
| German: | Schuld | n.fem | dept, fault, what is owed | LRC |
| schulden | vb | to owe | LRC | |
| soll | vb.mod.1/3.sg | should | TLL | |
| sollen | vb.mod | shall | LRC | |
| sollte | vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret | would | TLL | |
| North Germanic | ||||
| Old Norse: | skulu | vb.mod | shall, must, ought | LRC |
| Old Icelandic: | skuld | n | debt, duty, what is owed | GED |
| skuldr | vb.pres.ptc | owing | GED | |
| skulu, skal, skulum, skyldi | vb.ptpr | to owe; shall, must, should | ASD/GED | |
| skyld | n | debt, duty, what is owed | GED | |
| Icelandic: | skuld, skyld | n | due, tax; sake | ASD |
| Danish: | skal | vb.mod.1/3.sg | should; must | TLL |
| skulde | vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret | should have, had to | TLL | |
| Swedish: | skall | vb.mod.1/3.sg | shall, am/is going to | TLL |
| skulle | vb.mod.1/3.sg.pret | would, should, was going to | TLL | |
| East Germanic | ||||
| Gothic: | skula | adj/n.wk | guilty, in debt; debtor | LRC |
| skulan, skal, skulum, skulda | vb.ptpr.IV | to owe, have to, be obliged | ASD/GED | |
| Baltic | ||||
| Old Prussian: | skellānts | vb.past.ptc | indebted | GED |
| Old Lithuanian: | skelù | vb | to owe | GED |
| Lithuanian: | kal̃tas | vb.past.ptc | indebted | GED |
| skelėti | vb | to owe | GED | |
| skola | n.fem | debt | LD/W7 | |
Key to Part-of-Speech/Grammatical feature abbreviations:
| Abbrev. | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | = | 1st person |
| 3 | = | 3rd person |
| IV | = | class 4 |
| adj | = | adjective |
| fem | = | feminine (gender) |
| mod | = | modal |
| n | = | noun |
| past | = | past (tense) |
| pres | = | present (tense) |
| pret | = | preterite (tense) |
| ptc | = | participle |
| ptpr | = | preterite-present (verb) |
| sg | = | singular (number) |
| str | = | strong (inflection) |
| vb | = | verb |
| wk | = | weak (inflection) |
Key to information Source codes (always with 'LRC' as editor):
| Code | Citation | |
|---|---|---|
| AHD | = | Calvert Watkins: The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed. (2000) |
| ASD | = | Joseph Bosworth and T. Northcote Toller: An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary (1898) |
| GED | = | Winfred P. Lehmann: A Gothic Etymological Dictionary (1986) |
| LD | = | Bronius Piesarskas and Bronius Svecevicius: Lithuanian Dictionary (1994) |
| LRC | = | Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas, Austin |
| TLL | = | Frederick Bodmer: The Loom of Language (1944) |
| W7 | = | Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (1963) |
