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Grammar

21 Iya-stem Adjectives and Nouns

A number of adjectives and a handful of nouns have a suffix -iya-. In some instances, forms with -iya- are found beside i-stem forms. Some of the nouns of this type may be former i-stems that have taken on a-stem inflection. Others, which were originally iya-stems, may either have adopted i-stem inflection by analogy, or they may have undergone a sound change in which the final a of the suffix was dropped. The adjective hantezziya- 'first', which is quite common, and which is sometimes spelled with the Sumerogram IGI plus phonetic complement, provides representative examples.

		animate				neuter
Singular						hantezz-i
nom.		hantezz-iya-s, hantezz-i-s				hantezz-i
acc.		hantezz-iya-n, hantezz-i-n
gen.				hantezz-iya-s
dat/loc.
abl.				hantezz-iy-az
inst.
all.				hantezz-iy-a
Plural
nom.		hantezz-i-ēs
acc.		hantess-i-us
gen.				hantezz-iya-s

22 r/n-stem nouns

Hittite has a number of neuter nouns in which a stem in -r, normally found in the nominative-accusative singular and plural, and sometimes in the locative singular, alternates with a stem in -n-. In the other Indo-European languages this is an archaic inflection retained only in scattered remnants, but Hittite not only possesses a number of archaic nouns with the original inflection fairly intact, the -r, -n- stem type of inflection is productive in Hittite and is used to form several kinds of verbal nouns.

The most archaic nouns of this type, such as wātar 'water' or ēshar 'blood', show an alternation both in the shapes of their roots and in the shapes of their suffixes according to case. Wātar retains the old collective-plural suffix -ār in its nominative-accusative plural, while the attested forms of ēshar may reflect a mix of inherited singular and plural-collective forms.

Singular
nom/acc.		wāt-ar		ēsh-ar
gen.		wit-en-as		ēs-n-as, ish-an-as, ēsh-an-as
dat/loc.		wit-en-i		ēs-n-i, ish-an-i
abl.		wit-en-az		ish-an-za
inst.		wid-an-ta		ēsh-an-ta
all.
Plural
nom/acc.		wid-ār

The early instrumental widanta was later replaced by witenit, with a stem witen- based on the stem of the genitive, dative, and ablative. The loss of h between consonants in genitive ēsnas and dative ēsni may have occurred in Indo-European or it may have been an inner Hittite development. Forms such as genitive ishanas were possibly inherited from an Indo-European collective inflection. It seems likely that forms with the stem ēsh-an- have adopted the root of the nominative-accusative.

In pāhhur 'fire' the suffix alternates between -ur in the nominative-accusative singular and -wen- elsewhere in the paradigm, while in mēhur 'time', the suffix of the nominative-accusative is -ur and the suffix of the rest of the paradimg is -un-:

Singular
nom/acc.		pāhh-ur		mēh-ur
gen.		pāhh-wen-as		mēh-un-as
dat/loc.		pāhh-wen-i		mēh-in-i
abl.		pāhh-wen-az		*mēh-un-az
inst.		pāhh-wen-it
all.				*mēh-un-a

Two other nouns, uttar 'word, thing, affair' and pattar 'basket, tray', have a suffix -ar that alternates with a suffix -an-. The plural of uttar, uddār also retains the old collective suffix -ār.

Singular
nom/acc.		utt-ar		patt-ar
gen.		utt-an-as		*patt-an-as
dat/loc.		udd-an-ī		patt-an-ī
abl.		udd-an-az		patt-an-az
inst.		udd-an-ta		patt-an-it
all.
Plural
nom/acc.		udd-ār
dat/loc.		udd-an-as

22.1 Complex Suffixes

Other neuter nouns of this type have complex suffixes which are the product of adding the suffixes -r and -n- to already existing nominal stems, some of which were themselves formed from verbal stems. Many of these nouns also have close relationships to verbs from which the base nouns were derived. Nouns in -āwar, -āun-, such as asāwar 'sheepfold' and patāwar 'feather' seem originally to have been formed from -ā-stem nouns. The root of asāwar is related to the root as- beside ēs- 'be':

Singular
nom/acc.		as-āwar		part-āwar
gen.		*as-āun-as		part-āun-as
dat.		as-āun-i		*part-āu-ni
abl.		as-āun-az		part-āun-az
inst.		*as-āun-it		part-āun-it
all.

The complex suffix -essar, -esn- forms verbal nouns, for example, hannessar, 'law case, judgment' comes from hann- 'litigate, decide a court case'.

Singular
nom/acc.		hanness-ar
gen.		hannes-n-as
dat.		hannes-n-i
abl.		hanness-n-az
inst.		hannes-n-it
all.

The suffix -ātar is used to form abstract nouns from verbs. In nouns of this type, the nominative-accusative -ātar alternates with a suffix -ānn- from *-ādn-. A frozen form of the allative -ānna forms one type of infinitive. Paprātar 'impurity', which is well attested, beside the verbs papre- 'be proven guilty' (i.e. 'impure'), papress- 'become impure', and paprahh- 'defile, make impure' is a representative noun of this type:

Singular
nom/acc.		paprātar
gen.		paprānn-as
dat.		paprānn-i
abl.		paprānn-aza
inst.		*paprānn-it
all.		*paprānn-a

Verbal abstract nouns in -war, have a genitive in -was, from an earlier -wons with a regular sound change of ns to s. The suffix in -n is preserved in the supine in -wan, from an original endingless locative, and in the infinitive in -wanzi from an original dative. Because original sequences of uw became um, verbs with stems in final -u- make verbal nouns in -mar, -mas, supines with the suffix -uman, and infinitives in -umanzi. The verbal nouns are often found in the genitive in expressions like: taknāz dāuwas 'taking from the earth' with dāuwas, genitive of dāwar, the verbal noun of dā- 'take', zahhiyas pēdan 'place of battle, battlefield' with the genitive of zahhiyawar from zahhiya- 'fight'.

22.2 Pēr, parn- 'house'

The noun *pēr 'house' (normally written É-er) has a stem par-n- in forms other than the nominative-accusative singular and plural. In the locative, the forms *pēr without ending and *pēr-i (written É-er and É-ri or É-i) are found beside parn-i:

Singular
nom/acc.		*pēer, Éer
gen.		par-n-as
dat/loc.		par-n-i, *pēr, *pēr-i
abl.		par-n-az
inst.
all.		par-n-a
Plural
nom/acc.		*pēr, É-er
gen.		*par-n-as
dat/loc.		par-n-as

23 The Locative

The locative is the case that indicates the place in which an object or action is located.

		nu		É-ri-ssi		anneskezzi
		and		in house-his (loc.)		he works
		"And he shall work in his house."

		pēdi-ssi-ma		ZÀ.HA.LI-an		anenun
		in place (loc.)-its-(loc.)-and		cress		I sowed
		"And on its site I sowed cress."

		nu-ssan		kē		hūman		GIpaddanī		katta handaizzi
		and-locatival		this		all		in a basket (loc.)		she arranges
		"And all this she arranges in a basket."

		nu-kan		Éh:li		sāwātar		pariparāi
		and-locatival		in yard (loc.)		the horn		she blows
		"And in the yard she blows the horn."

23.1 Abstract locative

The locative may be abstract in meaning:

		namma		INA		URUMirā		MMashuiluwan		EN-iznanni		tittanunun
		moreover		in		the City of Mira		Mashuiluwa		in lordship (loc.)		I established
		"And I established Mashuilas in lordship in the city of Mira."

23.2 Action in time

The locative is used in adverbial expressions locating action in time, for example:

		GIM-an-ma		hameshi		tethai
		When-but		in spring (loc.)		it thunders

		nu		URUNēsan		ispandi		nakkit		dās
		and		Nesa		in the night (loc.)		by force		I took
		"And I took Nesa in the night by force"

		hantezzi-kan		UD-ti		UDUiyantan		inanas		DUTU-i
		in-first (loc)-locatival		in day (loc.)		sheep		of illness		to the Sungod
		sipantahhi
		I sacrifice
		"On the first day I offer a sheep to the Sungod of illness."

24 The Imperative

The second person singular and plural of the imperative function as do imperatives in the other Indo-European languages, to indicate commands.

		ammel-kan		assul		PANI		MPulli		halzai
		my-locatival		greetings		before		Pulli		read
		"Read my greetings to Pulli."

		ÚHI.A-uss-a-kan		arha		hūdāk		waras
		grass-and-locatival		down		immediately		cut
		"Cut down the grass immediately."

		n-at-mu		tuppiaz		hatrāi
		and-it-to-me		with a tablet		write
		"Write it to me with a tablet!"

		nu		kuedani		DINAM		ēszi		n-at-si		hanni
		and		to whoever		a law case		is		and-it-for him		judge
		n-an-kan		asnut
		and-him-locatival		set right
		"Whoever has a law case, judge it for him and set him right."

		nu		tuliyan		halzisten
		and		the assembly		call (pl.)
		"Call the assembly!"

		nu-ssan		apiya		iyaddumat
		and-locatival		there		go (pl.)
		"Go there!"

24.1 Third person imperative

The third person imperative has modal-like functions. It can express a wish, or it can express a sense of obligation or of futurity. Often, it can act as an indirect sort of imperative, comparable to constructions in English with "shall," "should," "may," or "must."

		LUGAL-us		MUNUS.LUGAL-ass-a		huiswantes		asandu
		the king		the queen-and		alive		may they be
		"May the king and queen live! (i.e. 'Long live the king and queen!')"

		na-at		DUMU.NAM.LU.U19.LU-as		istamasdu
		and-it		mankind		let them hear
		"And let mankind hear it."

		nu-tta		DINGIRMEŠ		assuli		pahsantaru
		and-you		the gods		in benevolence		may they protect
		"May the gods protect you in benevolence."

		nu		auriyas		EN-as		DINAM		SIG5-in		hannau
		and		of watchtower		lord		law case		well		let him judge
		"The border lord should judge the case well (or 'Let the border lord judge the case well')."

24.2 Voluntive

The first person singular imperative, sometimes called a voluntive, expresses a wish, or may have a modal-like sense.

		teshit		uwallu
		with dream		let me see
		"Let me see (it) in (lit 'with') a dream."

		nu-mu		apppatar		hatrāttin
		and-to-me		receipt		write
		nu		seggalu
		and		I may know
		"Write me a receipt, so that I may know."

		zig-a		attas-mis		ēs		ug-a		DUMU-as		ēslit
		but-you		father-my		be		I-but		son		let me be
		"You be my father and let me be (your) son."

Although there is no special form for the first person plural imperative, the first person plural of the indicative can also be used to express a wish:

		kinun-a-wa		ehu		nu-wa		zahhiyawastati
		now-but-quotative		come on		and-quotative		we fight
		nu-wa-nnas		DU		BELI-YA		DINAM		hannāu
		and-quotative-for-us		the Stormgod		lord-my		case		let judge
		"Now come, let us fight (or 'we will fight'); let the Stormgod, my lord, judge the case for us."

24.3 Negative adverb lē

Forms of the second person present and third person present can also have imperative or modal force when used with the negative adverb lē.

		memiyann-a-ssi		lē		mematti
		word-but-to-her		not		you speak
		"You should not speak a word to her."

		nu		sarāzzi		DI-sar		lē		katterahtēni
		and		superior		court case		not		make low
		kattera-ma		hannessar		lē		sarāzziyahteni
		inferior-but		court case		not		make superior
		"Do not disparage a superior court case, nor make an inferior case prevail."

		nu-wa		BĒLĪNĪ-NI		INA		URUHayasa		lē		pāisi
		and-quotative		lord-our		against		Hayassa		not		he goes
		"Let our lord not go against Hayasa."

24.4 Archaic forms of "come, go"

Hittite preserves two archaic forms of the imperative of the verb meaning "come, go." One, ehu can be roughly translated as "come" or "come on!"

		kinun-a-wa		ehu		nu-wa		zahhiyawastati
		now-but-quotative		come on		and-quotative		we fight
		"Now come, let us fight!"

		arunaz		ehu
		from the sea		come on
		"From the sea, come!"

The other archaic imperative, ī-, is preserved in the second person singular īt and the second person plural ītten.

		īt-wa		ANA		DIM		URUHatti		BELÍ-YA
		go-quotative		to		Stormgod		of Hatti		lord-my
		"Go to the Stormgod of Hatti, my lord!"

		ītten		azzikatten		akkuskatten
		go		keep eating		keep drinking
		"Go, keep eating (and) drinking (i.e., 'remain alive')!"

The two may be used together:

		ehu		hāras		īt
		come on		eagle		go
		"Come on eagle, go!"

25 The quotative particle

The quotative particle -war- is used to indicate quoted speech. It takes the form -war- when it occurs before enclitics beginning with vowels, and it shows up as -wa- when it occurs before enclitics beginning with consonants. At the end of a phrase, it also shows up as -wa:

• nu-war-an and-quotative-him
• nu-war-asta and-quotative-locatival
• nu-wa-tta and-quotative-you
• nu-wa-za and-quotative-reflexive
• nu-wa and-quotative

Normally, -war- is attached to the first word of each clause in a passage of quoted speech, as in the following passage from the Apology of Hattusilis III that quotes what Ishtar said to Hattusilis' father, Mursilis, in a dream. Note that the quotative particle can be rendered in English as "saying":

		nu		DISTAR		GASAN-YA		ANA		MMursli
		and		Ishtar		lady-my		to		Mursilis
		A.BI-YA		Ù-et		MNIR.GÀL-in		ŠEŠ-YA		wiyat
		father-my		with dream		Muwattallis		brother-my		sent
		ANA		MHattusli-wa		MU.KAMHI.A		maninkuwantes
		for		Hattusilis-quotative		years		short
		ŪL-war-as		TI-annas		nu-war-an		ammuk
		not-quotative-he		of life		and-quotative-him		to me
		parā pāi		nu-war-as-mu		LÙsankunnis		ēsdu
		hand over		and-quotative-he-to me		priest		let be
		nu-war-as		TI-anza
		and-quotative-he		living
		"Ishtar, My Lady, sent Muwattalis, my brother, to my father, Mursilis by means of a dream, (saying): 'For Hattusilis(-wa), the years are short. He(-war) is not for life. Give him(-war) to me and let him(-war) be my priest. Then he(-war) (will) live.'"

Quoted speech may also be introduced by a verb of speaking or saying:

		nu		siunan		antusiss-a		tarsikkanzi
		and		of gods		men-and		are saying
		kāsa-wa		URUHattusi		ēshar		pangariyattati
		look-quotative		in Hattusas		bloodshed		has become widespread
		"And now the men of the gods are saying: 'Look(-wa) bloodshed has become widespread in Hattusas.'"

Sometimes the adverb kissan "thus" or "the following" is used, with or without a verb of speaking or saying, to introduce quoted speech:

		nu		wet		ABI		DUTUŠI		ANA		MMadduwatta
		and		came		father		of my majesty		to		Madduwattas
		kissan		namma		memista		kāsa-wa-tta
		thus		moreover		said		look-quotative-to-you
		KÚR		HUR.SAGZippaslā		ADDIN		nu-wa-za
		country		Mt. Zippasala		I have given		and-quotative-reflexive
		apūn-pat		esi
		that-itself		be
		"And the father of my majesty came (and), moreover, said the following, to you, Madduwattas, 'Look,(-war) to you I have given the mountain land of Zippasla; so(-wa) occupy it!'"

The verb hatrāi- 'write' is treated as a verb of speaking, and quotations from letters are marked with the quotative particle -war-, -wa-. In the following, the king is quoting a letter that he has received from one provincial official to two other officials to whom he is writing:

		kāsa-mu		MPisenis		URUKasepuraz		hatraīit
		look-to me		Piseni		from Kasepura		wrote
		LÚKÚR-wa		pangarit		ispandaz
		enemy-quotative		in force		by night
		kuwapi		VI ME		LÚKÚR		kuwapi-ma		IV ME
		in place		600		enemy		in place-but		400
		LÚKÚR		yattaru		nu-wa-kan		halkius		arha waraskezzi
		enemy		is marching		and-quotative		grain		harvests up
		"Look, Piseni wrote me from Kasepura: 'The enemy(-wa) is marching in force by night -- 600 enemy in one place, 400 enemy in another, and he(-wa) is harvesting up the grain.'"

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